04 Kayinamura Landry
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Connecting Hemispheres
People and Empires in the Americas
North American Societies
1.
Describe various cultures of North America before Columbus.
The Pacific Northwest from Oregon to Alaska was rich in resources and supported a
sizable population. To the Kwakiutl, Nootka, and Haida peoples, the most important
resource was the sea. They hunted whales in canoes. Some canoes were large enough
to carry at least 15 people. In addition to the many resources of the sea, the coastal
forest provided plentiful food. In this abundant environment, the Northwest Coast tribes
developed societies in which differences in wealth created social classes. Families
displayed their rank and prosperity in an elaborate ceremony called the potlatch. In this
ceremony, they gave food, drink, and gifts to the community.
2.
Explain the unique traditions of Mound Builders and other woodland cultures.
Beyond the Great Plains, in the woodlands east of the Mississippi River, other ancient
peoples the Mound Builders were creating their own unique traditions. Beginning around
700 B.C, a culture known as the Adena began to build huge earthen mounds in which
they buried their dead. Mounds that held the bodies of tribal leaders often were filled with
gifts, such as finely crafted copper and stone objects. Some 500 years later, the
Hopewell culture also began building burial mounds. Their mounds were much larger
and more plentiful than those of the Adena. Some of the Hopewell mounds may have
been used for purposes other than burials. For example, the Great Serpent Mound, near
Hillsboro, Ohio, may have played a part in Hopewell religious ceremonies. The last
Mound Builder culture, the Mississippian, until the arrival of Europeans in the 1500s
These people created thriving villages based on farming and trade.
3.
identify common features of Native American cultures.
The Iroquois alliance was a notable example of a political link among early North
American peoples. For the most part, however, the connections between native North
Americans were economic and cultural. They traded, had similar religious beliefs, and
shared social patterns. Trade was a major factor linking the peoples of North America.
Along the Columbia River in Oregon, the Chinook people established a lively
marketplace that brought together trade goods from all over the West. And the
Mississippian trade network stretched from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic coast
and from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico. Another feature that linked early
Americans was their religious beliefs. Nearly all native North Americans believed that the
world around them was filled with nature spirits. Most Native Americans recognized a
number of sacred spirits. Some groups held up one supreme being, or Great Spirit,
above all others. North American peoples believed that the spirits gave them rituals and
customs to guide them in their lives and to satisfy their basic needs.
Maya Kings and Cities
1.
Describe key features of Maya kingdoms.
The period from A.D. 250 to 900 is known as the Classic Period of Maya civilization.
During this time, the Maya built spectacular cities such as Tikal , a major center in
northern Guatemala. Other important sites included Copan, Palenque, Uxmal, and
Chichen Itza. Each of these was an independent city state, ruled by a god-king and
serving as a center for religious ceremonies and trade. Maya cities featured giant
pyramids, temples, palaces, and elaborate stone carvings dedicated to the gods and to
important rulers. Agriculture and Trade Support Cities Although the Maya city states
were independent of each other, they were linked through alliances and trade. Cities
exchanged their local products such as salt, flint, feathers, shells, and honey. They also
traded craft goods like cotton textiles and jade ornaments While the Maya did not have a
uniform currency, cacao beans sometimes served as one. Successful farming methods
led to the accumulation of wealth and the development of social classes. The noble
class, which included priests and the leading warriors, occupied the top rung of Maya
society. Below them came merchants and those with specialized knowledge, such as
skilled artisans. Finally, at the bottom, came the peasant majority.
2.
Explain Maya beliefs and achievements.
The Maya worshiped their gods in various ways. They prayed and made offerings of
food, flowers, and incense. They also pierced and cut their bodies and offered their
blood, believing that this would nourish the gods. Sometimes the Maya even carried out
human sacrifice, usually of captured enemies. At Chichen Itza, they threw captives into a
deep sinkhole lake, called a cenote , along with gold, jade, and other offerings. May
religious beliefs also led to the development of the calendar, mathematics, and
astronomy. The Maya believed that time was a burden carried on the back of a god. At
the end of a day, month, or year, one god would lay the burden down and another would
pick it up. A day would be lucky or unlucky, depending on the nature of the god. So, it
was very important to have an accurate calendar to know which god was in charge of the
day. The Maya developed a 260 day religious calendar, which consisted of thirteen
20 day months. A second 365 day solar calendar consisted of eighteen 20 day
months, with a separate period of 5 days at the end. The two calendars were linked
together like meshed gears so that any given day could be identified in both cycles.
The calendar helped identify the best times to plant crops, attack enemies, and
crown new rulers.
3.
Identify reasons for the decline of the Maya.
The remarkable history of the Maya ended in mystery. In the late 800s, the Maya
suddenly abandoned many of their cities. Invaders from the north, the Toltec,
moved into the lands occupied by the Maya. These warlike peoples from central
Mexico changed the culture. The high civilization of Maya cities like Tikal and Copan
disappeared. No one knows exactly why this happened, though experts offer several
overlapping theories. By the 700s, warfare had broken out among the various Maya city
states. Increased warfare disrupted trade and produced economic hardship. In addition,
population growth and over-farming may have damaged the environment, and this led to
food shortages, famine, and disease. As the Maya civilization faded, other peoples of
Mesoamerica were growing in strength and sophistication. Like the Maya, these peoples
would trace some of their ancestry to the Olmec.
The Aztecs Control Central Mexico
1.
Describe the Teotihuacan and Toltec cultures of the Valley of Mexico.
The Valley of Mexico, a mountain basin about 7,500 feet above sea level, served as the
home base of several powerful cultures. The valley had several large, shallow lakes at
its center, accessible resources, and fertile soil. These advantages attracted the people
of Teotihuacan and the Toltecs. They settled in the valley and developed advanced
civilizations that controlled much of the area. The first major civilization of central Mexico
was Teotihuacan, a city state whose ruins lie just outside Mexico City. In the first
century, villagers at this site began to plan and construct a monumental city, even larger
than Monte Alban, in Oaxaca. nAt its peak in the sixth century, Teotihuacan had
a population of between 150,000 and 200,000 people, making it one of the largest cities
in the world at the time. The heart of the city was a central avenue lined with more than
20 pyramids dedicated to various gods.
2.
Describe Aztec society, religion, and urban planning.
The Aztecs arrived in the Valley of Mexico around 1200. The valley contained a number
of small city states that had survived the collapse of Toltec rule. The Aztecs, who were
then called the Mexica, were a poor, nomadic people from the harsh deserts of northern
Mexico. Fierce and ambitious, they soon adapted to local ways, finding work as soldiers
for hire to local rulers. According to one of the Aztec legends, the god of the sun and
warfare, Huitzilopochtli , told them to found a city of their own. He said to look for a place
where an eagle perched on a cactus, holding a snake in its mouth. Over the years, the
Aztecs gradually increased in strength and number. In 1428, they joined with two other
city states Texcoco and Tlacopan to form the Triple Alliance. This alliance became the
leading power in the Valley of Mexico and soon gained control over neighboring regions.
By the early 1500s, the alliance controlled a vast empire that covered some 80,000
square miles stretching from central Mexico to the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and south
into Oaxaca. This empire was divided into 38 provinces. It had an estimated population
of between 5 and 15 million people.
3.
Identify factors that led to the decline of the Aztecs.
In 1502, a new ruler, Montezuma II , was crowned emperor. Under Montezuma, the
Aztec Empire began to weaken. For nearly a century, the Aztecs had been demanding
tribute and sacrificial victims from the provinces under their control. Now, with the
population of Tenochtitlan growing ever greater, Montezuma called for even more tribute
and sacrifice. A number of provinces rose up against Aztec oppression. This began a
period of unrest and rebellion, which the military struggled to put down. Over time,
Montezuma tried to lessen the pressure on the provinces. For example, he reduced the
demand for tribute payment by cutting the number of officials in the Aztec government.
But resentment continued to grow. Many Aztecs began to predict that terrible things were
about to happen. They saw bad omens in every unusual occurrence lightning striking a
temple in Tenochtitlan, or a partial eclipse of the sun, for example. The most worrying
event, however, was the arrival of the Spanish. For many Aztecs, these fair-skinned,
bearded strangers from across the sea brought to mind the legend of the return of
Quetzalcoatl.
The Inca Create a Mountain Empire
1.
Trace the Incan rise to power.
The Inca originally lived in a high plateau of the Andes.
After wandering the highlands for years, the Inca finally settled on fertile lands
in the Valley of Cuzco. By the 1200s, they had established their own small kingdom in
the valley. During this early period, the Inca developed traditions and beliefs that helped
launch and unify their empire. One of these traditions was the belief that the
Incan ruler was descended from the sun god, Inti, who would bring prosperity and
greatness to the Incan state. Only men from one of 11 noble lineages believed to be
descendants of the sun god could be selected as Incan leaders. At first the Incan
kingdom grew slowly. In 1438, however, a powerful and ambitious ruler, Pachacuti, took
the throne. Under his leadership, the Inca conquered all of Peru and then moved into
neighboring lands. By 1500, the Inca ruled an empire that stretched 2,500 miles along
the western coast of South America. The Inca called this empire “Land of the Four
Quarters.” It included about 80 provinces and was home to as many as 16 million
people.
2.
Describe Incan government and religion.
To control the huge empire, the rulers divided their territory and its people into
manageable units, governed by a central bureaucracy. The Inca created an efficient
economic system to support the empire and an extensive road system to tie it together.
They also imposed a single official language, Quechua,and founded schools to teach
Incan ways. Certain social groups were identified by officially dictated patterns on
clothing. All of these actions were calculated to unify the variety of people controlled by
the Inca. To exercise control over their empire, the Inca built many cities in conquered
areas. The architecture of government buildings was the same all over the empire,
making the presence of the government apparent. As in Rome, all roads led to the
capital, Cuzco. The heart of the Incan empire, Cuzco was a splendid city of temples,
plazas, and palaces. The Incan state exercised almost total control over economic
and social life. It controlled most economic activity, regulating the production and
distribution of goods. Unlike the Maya and the Aztecs, the Inca allowed little private
commerce or trade. The Incan social system was based on an age-old form of
community cooperation the ayllu. The ayllu, or extended family group, undertook tasks
too big for a single family. These tasks included building irrigation canals or cutting
agricultural terraces into steep hillsides. The ayllu also stored food and other supplies to
distribute among members during hard times.
3.
Describe discord in the Incan Empire.
The Incan Empire reached the height of its glory in the early 1500s during the reign of
Huayna Capac. Trouble was brewing, however. In the 1520s, Huayna Capac undertook
a tour of Ecuador, a newly conquered area of the empire. In the city of Quito, he
received a gift box. When he opened it, out flew butterflies and moths, considered an evil
omen. A few weeks later, while still in Quito, Huayna Capac died of disease probably
smallpox. After his death, the empire was split between his sons, Atahualpa and
Huascar. Atahualpa received Ecuador, about none-fifth of the empire. The rest went to
Huascar. At first, this system of dual emperors worked. Soon, however, Atahualpa laid
claim to the whole of the empire. A bitter civil war followed. Atahualpa eventually won,
but the war tore apart the empire. As you will learn in Chapter 20, the Spanish arrived in
the last days of this war. Taking advantage of Incan weakness, they would soon divide
and conquer the empire.
European Renaissance and Reformation
Italy: Birthplace of the Renaissance
1.
Explain the conditions in Italy that gave rise to the Renaissance.
This movement that started in Italy caused an explosion of creativity in art,
writing, and thought that lasted approximately from 1300 to 1600. Historians call
this period the Renaissance. The term means rebirth, and in this context, it refers
to a revival of art and learning. The educated men and women of Italy hoped to
bring back to life the culture of classical Greece and Rome. Yet in striving to
revive the past, the people of the Renaissance created something new. The
contributions made during this period led to innovative styles of art and literature
They also led to new values, such as the importance of the individual.The
Renaissance eventually spread from northern Italy to the rest of Europe. Italy had
three advantages that made it the birthplace of the Renaissance: thriving cities, a
wealthy merchant class, and the classical heritage of Greece and Rome.
2.
Identify the values and ideas prized during the Renaissance.
The study of classical texts led to humanism, an intellectual movement that
focused on human potential and achievements. Instead of trying to make
classical texts agree with Christian teaching as medieval scholars had, humanists
studied them to understand ancient Greek values. Humanists influenced artists
and architects to carry on classical traditions. Also, humanists popularized the
study of subjects common to classical education, such as history, literature, and
philosophy. These subjects are called the humanities.
3.
Describe the artistic breakthroughs and achievements of Renaissance artists.
4.
Summarize influential literary works and techniques of key Renaissance writers.
The Northern Renaissance
1.
Explain the origins and characteristics of the Northern Renaissance.
By 1450 the population of northern Europe, which had declined due to bubonic
plague, was beginning to grow again. When the destructive Hundred Years’ War
between France and England ended in 1453, many cities grew rapidly. Urban merchants
became wealthy enough to sponsor artists. This happened first in Flanders, which was
rich from long-distance trade and the cloth industry. Then, as wealth increased in other
parts of Northern Europe, patronage of artists increased as well. Italy was divided into
city states. In contrast, England and France were unified under strong monarchs. These
rulers often sponsored the arts by purchasing paintings and by supporting artists and
writers. For example, Francis I of France invited Leonardo da Vinci to retire in France,
and hired Italian artists and architects to rebuild and decorate his castle at
Fontainebleau. The castle became a showcase for Renaissance art. As Renaissance
ideas spread out of Italy, they mingled with northern traditions. As a result, the northern
Renaissance developed its own character. For example, the artists were especially
interested in realism.
2.
Trace the impact of the Renaissance on German and Flemish painters.
In 1494, a French king claimed the throne of Naples in southern Italy and launched an
invasion through northern Italy. As the war dragged on, many Italian artists and writers
left for a safer life in Northern Europe. They brought with them the styles and techniques
of the Italian Renaissance. In addition, Northern European artists who studied in Italy
carried Renaissance ideas back to their homelands. Perhaps the most famous person to
do this was the German artist Albrecht Dürer. He traveled to Italy to study in 1494. After
returning to Germany, Dürer produced woodcuts and engravings. Many of his prints
portray religious subjects. Others portray classical myths or realistic landscapes. The
popularity of Dürer’s work helped to spread Renaissance styles.The support of wealthy
merchant families in Flanders helped to make Flanders the artistic center of northern
Europe. The first great Flemish Renaissance painter was Jan van Eyck. Van Eyck used
recently developed oil-based paints to develop techniques that painters still use. By
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