6.3 and 11.1 Notes

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Purdue University *

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Oct 30, 2023

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6.3.U1:  Pathogen: A pathogen is a microorganism or agent that can cause disease in the host organism.  Skin and mucous membranes form the first line of defense against pathogens.  Skin acts as a physical barrier, sebaceous glands produce protective oils, and mucous membranes produce mucus that traps and expels pathogens. 6.3.U2:  Benefits of blood clotting when skin is cut:  It prevents excessive bleeding, which helps maintain blood volume and pressure.  It seals the wound, reducing the risk of pathogens entering the body. 6.3.U3:  Two roles of platelets in the blood clotting cascade:  They release clotting factors that initiate and promote the clotting process.  They adhere to damaged blood vessel walls, forming a plug to stop bleeding. 6.3.U4: Blood clotting cascade:  Platelets release clotting factors.  Clotting factors activate one another in a series of reactions.  Thrombin is formed, which converts fibrinogen into fibrin.  Fibrin forms a mesh that traps blood cells to create a clot. 6.3.U5:  White blood cells are the second line of defense against pathogens.  Phagocytic white blood cells ingest and destroy pathogens by engulfing them in a process called phagocytosis. 6.3.U6:  Specific immune response: The immune system's targeted defense against a particular pathogen.  Antigen: A foreign substance that triggers an immune response.  Antibody: Y-shaped proteins produced by lymphocytes that bind to antigens and neutralize or mark them for destruction.  Structure: Antibodies have variable regions that recognize antigens and constant regions that activate immune responses.  Plasma cells produce antibodies, while memory cells "remember" the pathogen for future responses. 6.3.U7:  Antibiotic: A substance that inhibits or kills bacteria by targeting processes specific to prokaryotic cells.  Antibiotics kill bacteria by disrupting cell wall synthesis, protein synthesis, DNA replication, or other bacterial processes.

 Antibiotics are ineffective against viruses because viruses lack the cellular machinery targeted by antibiotics. 6.3.U8:  Antibiotics are ineffective against viruses because viruses do not possess the cellular processes targeted by antibiotics, as they lack metabolism. 6.3.U9: Measures to avoid antibiotic resistance:  Completing the full antibiotic course.  Avoiding unnecessary antibiotic use.  Proper hygiene and sanitation practices.  Developing new antibiotics.  Implementing strict antibiotic prescription guidelines. Multiple drug antibiotic resistance is dangerous because it limits treatment options for bacterial infections. Example of multidrug-resistant bacteria: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). 6.3.A1:  Coronary arteries supply the heart with oxygen and nutrients.  Coronary thrombosis: Formation of blood clots in coronary arteries.  Sources of arterial damage increasing thrombosis risk include atherosclerosis, smoking, hypertension, and diabetes. 6.3.A2:  HIV compromises the immune system by attacking CD4+ T cells.  HIV is the virus that leads to AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome).  HIV spreads through unprotected sexual contact, sharing needles, blood transfusions, and from mother to child during childbirth or breastfeeding. 6.3.A3:  Florey and Chain's experiments tested penicillin on bacterial infections in mice.  They injected mice with lethal bacterial infections and treated some with penicillin.  Results showed that penicillin effectively treated bacterial infections, saving the lives of the treated mice. 11.1.U1:  Antigen: Unique molecules on the surface of cells that can trigger an immune response.  Example antigen molecules include proteins, carbohydrates, and viral components. 11.1.U2:

 "Challenge and response" mechanism of specific immunity: When a pathogen's antigen (challenge) enters the body, it triggers a specific immune response (response).  Activation of helper T lymphocytes by the macrophage: Macrophages present pathogen antigens to helper T cells, activating them.  Activation of B cell lymphocytes by helper T cells: Helper T cells stimulate B cells by binding to their antigen receptors and releasing signaling proteins. 11.1.U3:  Plasma B cells are specialized B lymphocytes.  Structure: Plasma B cells have unique antibody-like receptors and abundant rough endoplasmic reticulum.  Function: They produce and secrete large quantities of antibodies. 11.1.U4:  Clonal selection of plasma B cells: Activated B cells multiply to form clones of plasma cells and memory cells with the same antigen specificity. 11.1.U5:  Four modes of antibody action: Antibodies can neutralize pathogens, agglutinate pathogens, activate complement proteins, and facilitate phagocytosis. 11.1.U6:  Immunity: The ability to resist infection and disease.  Mechanisms of immunity: Specific and non-specific immunity.  Primary immune response occurs upon initial pathogen exposure, while the secondary immune response is faster and stronger upon re-exposure. 11.1.U7:  Principle of vaccination: Vaccines contain antigens that stimulate the immune system to produce a primary immune response without causing the actual disease. 11.1.U8:  Mechanisms preventing pathogen cross-species transmission: Species-specific receptors, physical barriers, and host immune responses.  Zoonosis: Diseases that can be transmitted from animals to humans.  Examples: Rabies, Ebola, and Hantavirus. 11.1.U9:  Source and function of histamine proteins: Histamines are released by white cells (mast cells) and cause vasodilation and increased capillary permeability, leading to inflammation. 11.1.U10:

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 Allergic symptoms caused by histamines include itching, redness, swelling, and increased mucus production.  Anti-histamines block histamine's effects and alleviate allergic symptoms. 11.1.U11:  Production of hybridoma cells: Fusion of a tumor cell with an antibody-producing plasma cell creates hybridoma cells for monoclonal antibody production. 11.1.U12:  Monoclonal antibody: Antibodies produced by identical hybridoma cells.  Production: Hybridoma cells produce monoclonal antibodies that are purified and used in diagnosis and treatment, such as pregnancy tests and cancer therapy. 11.1.A1:  ABO blood antigens: A, B, AB, and O blood types determined by the presence or absence of specific antigens on red blood cells.  Human ABO blood types: A (A antigen), B (B antigen), AB (both A and B antigens), O (neither A nor B antigens).  Consequences of mismatched blood transfusions: Agglutination (clumping) and hemolysis (destruction of red blood cells). 11.1.A2:  Eradication of smallpox: A global initiative involving mass vaccination campaigns led to the successful eradication of the disease. 11.1.A3:  Pregnancy test strip works by detecting human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) hormone in urine.  Free monoclonal antibodies bind to hCG, while immobilized antibodies capture the complex, causing a color change. 11.1.S1:  Epidemiology: The study of disease patterns and their causes in populations.  Role of an epidemiologist in vaccination programs: Collecting and analyzing data to assess vaccine effectiveness, coverage, and safety in populations.

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