WEEK 7 FINAL PAPER

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RUNNING HEAD: The History of the Increase in Opiate Addiction Final Research Paper: The History of the Increase in Opiate Addiction Veronica C. Correll Grand Canyon University PCN: 527 Psychopharmacology and Addictions November 22, 2023

RUNNING HEAD: The History of the Increase in Opiate Addiction Numerous inquiries have been made regarding the causes of the opioid crisis's consistent escalation. The detrimental effects that this medication has had on patients and their families are supported by a plethora of statistics, and the prevalence of opioid addiction is rising as more people investigate new drugs. Studies on this epidemic have shown how pharmaceutical companies and physicians have fueled its continued growth. This paper will address the history of opioids in addition to providing background information on the rise in opioid prescriptions. We will discuss the history of opioids, psychopharmacology, new developments in pharmaceuticals, societal issues, and the connection between treatment and opioid dependence. A Synopsis of Opioid History Prescriptions for Sumerian clay tablets, according to Bandyopadhyay (2019), attest to an 8,000-year history of opioid use (para. 4). Morphine was introduced to the United States in the 1860s to treat injured Civil War soldiers; approximately 400,000 of these soldiers became addicted. Opium was first introduced in the country in 1775. Opioid addiction escalated in the 1800s, as evidenced by the figure in the article History of the Opioid Epidemic. This was mainly due to the accessibility of Bayer products over the counter: Foundation Recovery Network, 2021). The Foundation Recovery Network (2021) figure states that to get a stronger high, people began crushing and inhaling opioid medications later in 1910. This resulted in the Harrison Narcotics Act, which was signed into law in 1914 and mandated that only prescriptions be obtained for opioid medications. Between 1976 and 1986, the FDA approved Vicodin and Percocet after discovering that opioids could be used to treat pain caused by cancer. The Foundation Recovery Network (2021) figure illustrates the World Health Organization's 1986 recommendation to use opioids as a last resort. Regretfully, the rise in prescriptions written in the

RUNNING HEAD: The History of the Increase in Opiate Addiction 1990s marked the start of the first wave of opioid-related deaths, which persist to this day (CDC, 2020, para. 3). Psychopharmacology of Opioids Tolerance to opioids is typically the first step toward the development of an addiction, according to Juergen (2020) (para. 4). When someone starts taking larger-than-recommended dosages due to tolerance, they become physically dependent and start to crave the drug. In 2013, the National Survey on Drug Use and Health found that more than half of people abusing prescription painkillers did so with assistance from a friend or family member (Juergen, 2020, para. 31). By attaching to opioid receptor proteins on brain and spinal cord nerve cells, opioids prevent pain signals from the spinal cord from reaching the body (ASA, 2021, para. 2). Opioids have significant side effects and have the potential to become very addictive, even though they can reduce pain. Opioid use can have potentially fatal side effects such as unconsciousness and insomnia when abruptly stopped (ASA, 2021, para. 3). Juergen (2020) defines opioids as agonists that amplify opioid receptors. This category includes both illegal and prescribed opioids. Antagonists "interact with specific receptor sites in the brain" (para.9), according to Juergen (2020), to replicate the opiate-producing effects of endorphins that are found naturally in the body. Both opiates and opioids function by activating the brain's Mu receptors while inhibiting the central nervous system (Juergen, 2021, para. 12). Issues and Trends of Today To treat severe or persistent pain, such as pain following surgery or chronic pain from cancer, doctors prescribe prescription opioids such as OxyContin, Percocet, or Vicodin (American Society of Anesthesiologists, 2021) (para. 1). In addition, opioid prescriptions may be used to treat injuries sustained in sports, auto accidents, falls, and other mishaps (ASA, 2021,

RUNNING HEAD: The History of the Increase in Opiate Addiction para.1). Despite the high risks and lack of information regarding the long-term efficacy of these drugs, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2017) report that the number of prescriptions for opioids for patients with chronic pain and non-cancer patients has increased recently (para. 1). Codeine, loperamide, and dihydrocodeine are examples of opioid-like drugs that are frequently abused, according to Sobczak and Gorynski (2020). The abuse of over-the- counter opioids has supplanted the use of illegal or prescription opioids. According to Sobczak and Gorynski's (2020) research, OTC opioid-based medications—much like the drugs we discussed earlier—are frequently abused when taken for purposes other than medical ones (para. 3). Sobczak and Gorynski (2020) state recommended dosage for over-the-counter codeine tablets is 15 mg every 4-6 hours; however, abuse starts at a starting dose of 30–60 mg and can increase to 100–250 mg to produce euphoria (para.13). Public Issues or Concerns A 2016 Hagemeier (2018) report states that more than 60 million patients were prescribed opioids at least once in 2016. In 2012, there were 259 million prescriptions written for opioid painkillers in the United States alone. The CDC estimates that roughly 70% of drug-related deaths in 2020 involved opioids (para.1). There have been four times as many drug-related deaths since 1999. Almost 450,000 people, both legal and illicit opioid users, overdosed on opioids between 1999 and 2018 (CDC, 2020, para. 2). As per the CDC (2020, para. 3), there has been a rise in the number of deaths resulting from opioid overdoses since 1999. The outbreak of the epidemic coincided with a rise in the prescription of opioids during the 1990s. The beginning of the second wave of overdose deaths in 2010 was characterized by a sharp rise in deaths related to heroin use. Starting in 2013, an extra rise in overdose deaths associated with synthetic opioids set apart the third wave (CDC, 2020, para. 3). Government taxes were intended to be used as a

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