Final Exam -PHI1101K00

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NAME: Tunmise Oyedemi STUDENT NO.: 300353979 FINAL EXAM (60/60 Marks) PHI1101K00 Date of submission: 8 th of December 2023 by 11:59 PM, Eastern time (at the latest). Open book Exam It covers the Parts III & IV ( chapters 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 of Chris MacDonald and Lewis Vaughn, The Power of Critical Thinking ) of our course.  Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ) – (0.25 x 12 = 3 Marks) 1)What is one key difference between inductive and deductive arguments? a) Deductive arguments can never guarantee that the conclusion is true. b) Inductive arguments can never guarantee that the conclusion is true. c) Inductive arguments only apply in science. d) Deductive arguments are more useful. 2)Propositional logic is the branch of deductive reasoning that deals with the logical relationships among which of the following? a) Arguments b) Disjunctions c) Statements d) Predicates 3)What are the four logical connectives? a) Conjunctions, statements, disjuncts, and conditionals b) Conditionals, disjunctions, negations, and conjunctions c) Conjuncts, disjuncts, conditionals, and negations d) Conjunctions, conditionals, compounds, and disjunctions 4)What is the symbolic form of a conditional? a) p ∨ q b) p → q c) p & q d) p ~ q 5) What is the basic unit of concern in categorical logic? a) The predicate 1

b) The statement component c) The subject d) The statement 6)What are the four standard forms of categorical statements? a) All S are P ; Some S are P ; Some S are not P ; No S are P b) All S are P ; Some S are P ; Some S are not P ; All S are S c)All S are P ; No S are not P ; No S are P ; All P are S d)All S are P ; Some S are P ; All S are not P ; Some S are not P 7)Inference to the best explanation is a form of inductive reasoning in which we reason from premises about a state of affairs to what? a) An enumerative induction b) A deductive conclusion c) An analogical induction d) An explanation for that state of affairs 8)Which of the following is true about a teleological explanation? a) It concerns the meaning of a text. b) It concerns the purpose or function of something. c)It concerns how something is done. d)It is generally better than a theoretical explanation. 9)What is scientism? a) The belief that science is the only path to knowledge b) The belief that science is the only path to God c) The belief that religion is the one true knowledge d) The belief that science is biased against all religions 10)The most basic critical thinking skill when it comes to health is the ability to engage in reasoning about what? a) Analogy b) Legal issues c) Deduction d) Causation 11)Which of the following types of fallacy is prevalent in thinking about issues pertaining to health? a) Denying the antecedent b) Tu quoque c) Appeal to popularity d) Guilt by association 2

12)Which of the following is true about media reports on health-related issues? a) They are unfailingly unreliable. b) They often exaggerate the significance of new findings. c) They rarely exaggerate the significance of new findings. d) They are unfailingly reliable.  True and False Questions (TFQ) – (0.25 x 12 = 3 Marks) 1-Categorical statements make simple assertions about categories, or classes, of things. True 2-Propositional logic employs symbolic logic. True 3-In propositional logic, a compound statement is composed of at least three constituent statements. False 4-There are limits to the ways in which arguers can combine deductive and inductive arguments. False 5-An analogy can be used to argue inductively for a conclusion. True 6-An enumerative induction has the following pattern: Thing A has properties P 1 , P 2 , and P 3 plus the property P 4 . Thing B has properties P 1 , P 2 , and P 3 . Therefore, thing B probably has property P 4 . True 7-Procedural, interpretive, and functional are all kinds of explanation. False 8-The logical pattern for inference to the best explanation is as follows: I’ve noticed phenomenon Q . E provides the best explanation for Q . Therefore, it is probable that E is true. True 9-An explanation cannot be part of an argument. False 10-Science is the same as technology. False 11-Causal claims are irrelevant to both preserving and restoring health. False 12-The problem of common-causal factors is not relevant to reasoning about health. False  Chapter Knowledge Questions (CKQ) – (0.5 x 12 =6 Marks) ( Minimum 80 – maximum 150 words for one answer). Less than the minimum the penalty is 1 Mark for each question. 1-What are the four standard forms of categorical statements?  A- statement: Universal Affirmative (All S are P)  E-statement: Universal Negative (No S are not P)  I- statement: Particular Affirmative (Some S are P)  O- statement: Particular Negative (Some S are not P) 3

2-Why is categorical logic still studied? Categorical logic is part of our everyday reasoning which is why we need to understand its rules to have better and clearer thinking to formulate logical conclusions that help us to construct valid and rational arguments and understand the structure of those arguments. 3-If an argument form is valid, what does that imply about other arguments with the same form? If the argument is of the same form and follows the format of having a true premise and a true conclusion then it should also be deductively valid 4-What are the four connectives in propositional logic? How are they symbolized? What do they mean?  Conjunction (and) – p & q: This consists of two simple statements that use the word ‘and’ to make a logical connection if and only if each of the two-component statements is true to create a compound statement.  Disjunction (or) – p ѵ q: This uses the symbol “wedge” as a connection between two statements that either one of the statements is true or false otherwise which not only uses the word as a connective but also uses: “either, neither and unless.”  Negation (not) – p ~ q: This uses the symbol “tilde” as a denial of a statement which uses the connective word: “not”  Conditional (if – then) – p → q: These are statements which are influenced by certain conditions and the “truth” or “false” is based on the satisfaction of these conditions through the use of the connective word “if-then”. 5-What is the key difference between deductive and inductive arguments? Deductive arguments use deductive reasoning which is meant to provide logically conclusive support where the premises are true to prove the conclusions which are also meant to be true while an inductive argument uses inductive reasoning that supplies only probable support on the premises for its conclusion. 6-What is enumerative induction? What is its argument pattern? Enumerative induction makes use of an inductive method of reason from a generalization of the group as a whole to specific individual members of a group to conclusions.  Target group (Target population): This is where a group collection of individuals conducts research and draws their conclusions from their under study.  Sample (Sample members): These are the observed members of the target group.  Relevant property (Property in a question): A property or characteristic that is of interest to the group. 7-What is inference to the best explanation? How does it differ from enumerative inductions? 4

Inference to the best explanation is a form of inductive reasoning that is used as an extension of “best explanation” in which the premises explanation provides an essential reason to justify that the explanation is correct while enumerative inductions Enumerative induction also makes use of an inductive method of reason but uses reasons from a generalization of the group as a whole by deducing it to specific individual members of a group to conclusions. 8-What is the logical pattern for an inference to the best explanation? Phenomenon Q E provides the best explanation for Q. Therefore, it is probable that E is true. 9-How is science different from technology? Science seeks to acquire knowledge to create an understanding of reality which makes use of the formulation, testing and evaluation of theories through observation and experimentation to formulate both systematic and careful answers while technology is the application of scientific knowledge and methods to practical problems and issues that science only gives information and basic research on. 10-What is scientism? Scientism is the view that science is the only way to acquire knowledge and excessive belief 11- What causal confusions might crop up in thinking about issues pertaining to health? o Ignoring the Causal Factor: This is where information A and information B are correlated with each other, and genuinely causally connected, but information A doesn’t cause information B and information B doesn’t cause information A. Rather, both information A and information B are caused by some third factor information C, that they share in common. 12-Why is it important to be skeptical about claims made in the media about health care? Firstly, many reporters lack the necessary claims to conclude about anything on health science. Secondly, not all the information they gather is complete and most of them might push or spread lies to the viewers in order to gain popularity. Thirdly, most of the information they spread might be from their own personal opinions and views rather than that of an expert. Fourthly, most of the reporters are non-experts and have no experience in the field of health science to make claims and judgements about any piece of information. Lastly, reporters might not speak about the overall background information or the cause and the effects of the information. 5

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