Ch 8 - PSY 101 Notes

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Psychology

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Jan 9, 2024

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Chapter 8 - Psychology 101 Notes Section 1: Exploring Human Development Development refers to the pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout the course of life. Most development involves growth, although it also includes decline (for example, physical abilities may decline with age) Human development is about changes that occur with age In cross-sectional designs, a number of people are assessed at one point in time Cohort effects are differences between individuals that stem not necessarily from their ages but from the historical and social time period in which they were born and developed A longitudinal study assesses the same participants multiple times over a lengthy period - Can find out not only whether age groups differ but also whether the same individuals change with respect to a particular characteristic as they age How Do Nature and Nurture Influence Development Genotype is the individual’s genetic heritage - the actual genetic material. Phenotype shows the contributions of both nature and nurture Emergent property is a big entity (like a person) that is a consequence of the interaction of multiple lower-level factors Development is about the complex interactions of genes and experience that build the whole person Resilience refers to a person’s ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times Three Domains of Development 1. Physical processes involve changes in an individuals’s biological nature 2. Cognitive processes involve change in an individual’s thought, intelligence, and language 3. Socioemotional processes involve changes in an individual’s relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality Section 2: Physical Development Prenatal Physical Development Conception occurs when a single sperm cell from the male merges with the female’s ovum (egg) to produce a zygote, a single cell with 23 chromosomes from the biological mother and 23 from the biological father Development from zygote to fetus is divided into three periods: 1. Germinal period: weeks 1 and 2: The germinal period begins with conception. It is the period that the fertilized egg is called a zygote
2. Embryonic period: weeks 3 through 8: At this point, the zygote has become an embryo. The beginnings of organs appear. By the end of the embryonic period, the heart begins to beat, the arms and legs become more differentiated 3. Fetal period - months 2 through 9: At 2 months, the fetus is the size of a kidney bean and has started to move around. The last three months of pregnancy are the time when organ functioning increases and the fetus puts on considerable weight and size. Threats to the Fetus A teratogen is any agent that causes a birth defect. Teratogens include chemical substances ingested by the mother and certain illnesses Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood Reflexes Newborns come into the world equipped with several genetically wired reflexes that are crucial for survival. Babies are born with the ability to suck and swallow. The preferential looking technique involves giving an infant a choice of what object to look at. During childhood, synaptic connections increase dramatically. Recall that a synapse is a gap between neurons that is bridged by chemical neurotransmitters. Physical Development in Adolescence The signature physical change in adolescence is puberty, a period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation that occurs mainly in early adolescence Physical Development in Adulthood Physical changes in Early Adulthood The Adolescent Brain Based on experience and hormonal changes, in adolescence, brain changes first occur at the subcortical level in the limbic system, which is the seat of emotions and where rewards are experienced - The limbic system structure that is especially involved in emotion is the amygdala - Biological Theories of Aging - The cellular-clock theory is Leonard Hayflick’s view that cells can divide a maximum of about 100 times and that, as we age, our cells become less capable of dividing. - The free-radical of aging states that people age because unstable oxygen molecules known as free radicals are produced inside their cells. These molecules damage DNA and other cellular structures.
- Hormonal stress theory argues that aging in the body’s hormonal system can lower resistance to stress and increase the likelihood of disease Some brain areas shrink more than others with aging. The prefrontal cortex is one area that shrinks, and research has linked this shrinkage to a decrease in working memory and other cognitive activities in older adults Lateralization is the specialization of function in one hemisphere of the brain or the other Section 3: Cognitive Development Cognitive development refers to how thought, intelligence, and language processes change as people mature. Cognition refers to the operation of thinking and also to our cognitive skills and abilities. Jean Piaget presented a theory of cognitive development that has had a lasting impact on the field Cognitive Development from Childhood to Adulthood In Piaget’s view, human beings use schemas to make sense of their experience. A schema is a mental concept or framework that organizes information. Piaget described two processes responsible for how people use and adapt their schemas: - Assimilation means that individuals incorporate new information into existing schemas. - Accommodation means that individuals change their schemas in response to new experience Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development - The sensorimotor Stage lasts from birth to about 2 years of age. In this stage, infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motor actions. - Object permanence is Piaget’s term for the crucial accomplishment of understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched - The preoperational Stage lasts from approximately 2 to 7 years of age. - The child’s thought in the preoperational stage is egocentric, cannot put themselves in someone else’s shoes - Concrete Operational Stage lasts from 7 to 11 years of age involves using operations and replacing intuitive reasoning with logical reasoning in concrete situations - Formal Operational Stage lasts from 11 to 15 years of age. Formal operational thought is more abstract and logical than concrete operational thought. Section 4: Socioemotional Development Temperament refers to an individual’s behavioral style and characteristic ways of responding. Stella Chess and Alexander Thomas identified three basic types of temperament in children:
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