##anine Esterification Of Manotoxins : A Case Study

The Staphylococcus aureus bacteria belongs to the Staphylococcaceae family. It is small, round shaped, and non-motile. Staphylococcus aureus stains gram positive and can often be found in small clusters (Mandal, 2010). It often forms chains and is a large contributor of soft tissue infections. It is of a yellow color, hence the name ?aureus? which comes from the Latin term ?aurum? for gold (Orenstein, n.d.). Staphylococcus aureus is found in a few spots on the human body, such as the nasal passage, the skin, the oral cavity, and even the gastrointestinal tract. Staphylococci and Streptococci are two different strands of the bacteria and are very hard to distinguish from one another. In order to tell the difference between them, without a microscope, a catalase test needs to be performed. The test is undergone by adding 3% hydrogen peroxide to both samples. Since Staphylococci are catalase positive, meaning they produce catalase, they will produce O? while the Streptococci will not because Streptococci are catalase negative (Todar, n.d.).

Staphylococcus aureus is a microorganism that appears on several diverse surfaces. This bacterium lives harmlessly on the skin as part of the normal flora. Hard surfaces are also covered in S. aureus. The microorganism is gram positive.

The bacterium is capable of producing biofilms that allow microorganisms to stick to solid surfaces forming an attachment, which is enclosed by a slime layer ("Staphylococcus epidermis"). Biofilms protect pathogens from being destroyed by disinfectants inside human bodies ("Staphylococcus epidermis"). In other words, biofilms aid pathogens in causing diseases by releasing microbial products ("Staphylococcus

Necrotizing fasciitis Staphylococcus auerus can occur in many forms, one being methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus auerus (MRSA). This specific strand of bacterium that has evolved to become antibiotic resistant. This makes MRSA necrotizing fasciitis almost impossible to treat with antibiotics alone, and often requires extensive surgical procedures. In The New England Journal of Medicine, researchers highlighted MRSA as a root cause of numerous cases of monomicrobial necrotizing fasciitis reported in Los Angeles in 2003 (7).

The effectiveness of disease treatment is often presented by the challenge of antimicrobial resistance. Cystic Fibrosis (CF) for example, is a pulmonary infection characterized by the poly-microbial growth of bacteria within biofilms, in the pulmonary tract of humans. For children suffering from CF, Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) initially colonizes their airways, which with age, becomes replaced by Pseudomonas Aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa). The eradication of P. aeruginosa by antibiotics fails in 10-40% of CF patients. In the article, it was proven that there existed an interaction between the staphylococcal protein A (SpA) from S. aureus filtrates (SaF, a bacterial supernatant of S. aureus), and an exopolysaccharide (Psl) of P. aeruginosa. This interaction lead to the aggregation and increased resistance to tobramycin¬ – an antibiotic used to eradicate P. aeruginosa, to prevent chronic colonization of the bacteria. The study conducted involved 7 samples of P. aeruginosa that were taken from individuals who underwent successful eradication treatment, and 7 samples from individuals who still had persistent isolates. These P. aeruginosa samples were cultured for 24 hours in media. When SaF was added to the overnight preformed biofilms, the eradicated isolates were not affected by the SaF; however, the persistent isolates showed significant reduction is surface coverage due to densely packed cellular aggregation, without affecting the biomass or viability of persistent isolates. The

A total of 88 S. aureus were isolated from different samples including surfaces (n=34, 38.9%), personnel (23, 26.6%), air (20, 23%) and patients (11, 11.9%).

Sepsis is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality globally, the 10th leading cause of death in the United States and the second leading cause of death in non-cardiac intensive care units [1]. Each year between 400,000 and 500,000 cases of sepsis occur in the United States and the cost of caring for a septic patient is high, resulting in a national economic burden of almost 17 billion dollars per year [1-2]. Sepsis is a serious health concern and a better understanding of the causes and potential interventions is necessary. Since 1987, gram-positive bacteria have been the major causative agents of sepsis [1]. Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis are two of these causative agents and together cause the majority of nosocomial sepsis infections in United States hospitals [3]. Forty percent of the S. aureus strains, that cause an estimated 292,000 hospitalizations in the United States each year, are resistant to the first line option of antimicrobial therapy, methicillin/nafcillin (β-lactamase resistant penicillins), making them extremely difficult to treat [4].

More than often this microorganism are passed to the individual by a facilitated hospital, which gives rise to the great importance in the study of this bug and particular strains(Espedido). For students that aspire to be part of the healthcare field they will deal with Staphylococcus often and should identify thoughts that are carriers, transmitters, and infected by this bacteria with ease (Kiser 67). Notably, within twenty minutes of a baby being born Staphylococcus has already taken space on the skin, and throughout the course of life everyone will at some point be effected by this super bug. The uniqueness of this bacterium has many virulent factors, it could be caused by an alteration in own bacteria DNA, exposure, transmission, infections among many other ways to bring hostility to one’s life (Tristan). As the years progress, so has medicine; nevertheless, shown in a recent article relating to the resistance of Staphylococcus aureus, more and more people are being infected and die

Staphylococci are facultative anaerobes that grow by aerobic respiration or by fermentation that yields principally lactic acid. The bacteria are catalase-positive and oxidase-negative. S. Aureus can grow at a temperature range of 15 to 45 degrees and at NaCl concentrations as high as 15 percent. Nearly all strains of S. aureus produce the enzyme coagulase: nearly all strains of S. epidermis lack this enzyme.

Streptococci, streptococcus pyogenes, is the predominant cause which group A affects mostly on facial infections and non-group A affects the lower extremity (Gunderson & Martinello, 2012). These toxins are contributing the rapid inflammation which they normally live on body surface without causing problem, then once they penatrated via tinea pedia or eczema that causes the skin breakage and developing erysipelas (Gabillot-Carre & Roujeau, 2007).

Pathogenesis and virulence factors of Staphylococcus aureus are as follows; hemolysins which break down red blood cells, exfoliative toxins that break down skin architecture, coagulase that coagulates plasma, hyaluronidase which digest hyaluronic acid,

Microorganisms have been a cause of death as long as mankind has existed. Among these millions upon millions of bacteria, there is Staphylococcus Epidermis. S. Epidermis is a gram positive bacteria that survives on the human skin. It is the a very common organism that is caused by over using bio-materials in a hospital/ clinical enviroment. The Ability to produce slime allows it to stick onto certain surfaces. S.Epidermis has some pretty unique metabolic requirements. It cannot ferment mannitol, it grows in salt, is capable of growing using glucose, and has Urease present.

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is an opportunistic Gram-positive bacterium that cause varied human diseases such as skin infection, pneumonia, Toxic Shock Syndrome and bacterimia. 1/2 As time passes by, resistance strains of S.A appeared and with the recent emerge of methicillin and vancomycin resistance strains, S.A treatment become a truly challenging task now. 3/4 Numerous strategies S.A adopt to help achieving its resistance abilities such as exoenzymes, exotoxins, surface associated adhesion and capsular polysaccharide (CP). 93

Nowadays seen as an important opportunistic pathogen “Staphylococcus epidermidis is one of thirty-three known species belonging to the genus Staphylococcus” (5). It can be found within the mucous membranes, as a part of the skin flora, and in animals. If S. epidermidis comes in contact with a person who has a compromised immune system, it may cause infection merely to those inside of hospital settings. It like to live on the surface, but once inside a host can cause serious problems. There are many different strands of Staphylococcus, but this particular bacterium was “first differentiated from other forms of Staphylococcus in 1884 by Friedrich Julius Rosenbach" (6). S. flexneri causes dysentery that results in the destruction of the epithelial

The release of two exotoxins from certain strains of S. aureus can lead to Staphylococcal scaled skin syndrome (SSSS), which is characterized by blistering skin. Invasion into the body can lead to more serious health problems including pneumonia (a frequent complication of influenza), mastitis, phlebitis (inflammation of the veins), meningitis, and urinary tract infections. If the bacterium is allowed to colonize even deeper tissues more serious conditions such as osteomyelitis and endocarditis may result. The most serious consequences of these deeper tissue infections occur when the bacterium invades the bloodstream leading to septic shock and possibly death.