4. What Are The Two Main Genetic Indices (Parameters) That Investigators Typically Use?

the reduced biological fitness in a population as a result of inbreeding caused largely by the expression of lethal or debilitating alleles.

Fixation index was low (0.18) and significant (P < 0.05) in cytochrome b mitochondrial sequences and revealed low genetic differentiation among populations. This may result from the high gene flow among these populations (table 4).

Preceedings of the virtual symposium “Flagship species – Flagship problems”. Canadian Journal of Zoology 89. 386-400.

Inbreeding depression occurs when species inbreed to a point where the overall fitness of the species decreases significantly. Slate and Pemberton studied how reduced heterozygosity affected the sperm and gonads of wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) across the United Kingdom; they considered 112 individuals as well as populations (2006). The study found an important relationship: with a reduced heterozygosity, the production of normal sperm was also reduced (Slate and Pemberton, 2006). It is important to note; the relationship’s effect was found amongst individuals not entire populations (Slate and Pemberton, 2006). To compile this data, the scientists measured degrees of inbreeding with a molecular measure, using 29 microsatellite loci for each individual male rabbit (Slate and Pemberton, 2006). This loci region is known to have a relationship with the genes coding for inbreeding depression, although why is not completely understood (Slate and Pemberton, 2006).

At least 20 L. major kDNA haplotypes have been identified, by sequence alignment, in comparaison with sequences, presented in GenBank. Only 20 out of 80 (25%) PCR

Owing to the special geographical diversities and living conditions, the predominance of different genotypes might imply their long-standing presence in these regions and may be linked with exponential contact with other populations.

percentage of the mtDNA deletion relative to total mtDNA was used as a marker of

Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers are analyzed by using PCR to amplify the segments of nuclear DNA. The use of a single primer (usually 8–10 bp long) that attaches to both strands of DNA and low annealing temperatures increases the likeli¬hood of amplifying multiple regions representing a particular locus (Welsh and McClelland, 1990). Although RAPD is a simple and inexpensive technique its major limitation is the inability to differentiate between homozygote and heterozygote; this marker is therefore regarded as a dominant type. This technique is based on the use of short, arbitrary primers in PCR reaction and can be used to produce relatively detailed and complex DNA profiles

afull description of both HC and SC with a labeled diagram that includes gene/allele sequences for a heterozygote and ‘m’ or ‘p’ labels to indicate parental origin;

Mutation is a change in the nucleotide sequence of an organism’s DNA thus forming new alleles. Even it involves only change in a single base, whether it be insertion, deletion or substitution the effects are significant. “The severity of the frame shift depends on how far down the DNA base sequence the mutation occurs” (Crick, 1961). It gives rise to the changes in genotype and therefore different phenotype will be expressed. Sometimes mutations can occur in noncoding proteins region and bring no effect to the phenotypic characteristic. This is known as neutral variation. Mutation is a random and spontaneous process during DNA duplication. The formation of a harmful protein may be disadvantageous to the organism. Selection pressure will remove these alleles and it will not be passed on the next generations. On rare occasion, a mutant allele brings advantage to the bearer by making it better adapted to the environment thus increasing the reproductive success. For example, Patagona gigas living in Andean Highlands, an oxygen-poor region in South Africa which is 16,000 feet above sea level, experienced identical mutation independently and not by interbreeding. The mutation change their haemoglobin gene make it easier for oxygen to bind (Projecto-Garcia, 2013). Hence high-altitude hummingbirds have adaptive oxygen-binding traits to live in higher elevation zone.

Nature surrounds us everywhere no matter where we go. It is often taken for granted or not taken as seriously as it should be. Throughout the years many species have drastically evolved while others have gone completely extinct. Some species have gone extinct due to not being able to survive the changing environment. A lot of the time species have gone extinct because people do not think about nature as something that they should care about. Conservation is a big issue that is not always thought about or addressed. In this paper there are several topics that will be discussed such as what conservation status is and who assigns it to species, what critically endangered means and how the status is determined, and details regarding one critically endangered species: The Mongoose Lemur.

Inbreeding depression occurs when species inbreed to a point where the overall fitness of the species decreases. Slate and Pemberton studied how inbreeding resulted in a reduced heterozygosity affected the sperm of wild rabbits, Oryctolagus cuniculus, across the United Kingdom; they considered 112 individuals as well as populations (2006). The study found an important relationship: with a reduced heterozygosity, the production of normal sperm was also reduced (Slate and Pemberton, 2006). It is important to note; this relationship was found amongst individuals not entire populations (Slate and Pemberton, 2006). The study examined a loci region known to cause inbreeding depression for the data (Slate and Pemberton, 2006).

Long-term species persistence is the main goal of conservation biology, and this has been associated with maintenance of species’ evolutionary potential (Hamrick et al. 1991), which in turn, is not unconnected with higher levels of genetic variation in the focal species (Frankel and Soule 1981). Therefore, the field of conservation genetics, defined as the application of molecular genetic techniques to the conservation of biodiversity (Frankham 2010), was introduced for accurate understanding of genetic diversity in a focal taxa, and how this can be maintained or amplified, in order to ensure species persistence, even in a changing environment.

Endangered animals are a species with less than 2500 of that specific kind remaining and if their population is expected to drop by 50 percent within 10 years (c 15). In other cases some animals are naturally rare(c 8). Until the mid-20th century, these animals weren’t paid too much attention, until the study of environmental science and ecology took off. At this time conservation groups started coming up because they noticed these animals were becoming an immediate threat. Unfortunately these organizations could not do much only campaign against direct killing(c 10). The extinction of these animals is led by many factors, some of which these conservation groups had no control over such as natural extinction, which is

Table 1: Pedigree, breeding history, and origin of the five parental genotypes used in this investigation.