9. Transposable elements are sequences of DNA that are moved from one certain location from the

This lab is about moving genes from one thing to another using plasmids. Plasmid has the ability to replicate, so it replicates independently, and separately from the chromosomal DNA. Plasmid are one or more small piece of DNA and they enter cells as a double strand DNA. When they enter the cell as a doubke strand they do not invade he chromosomal DNA. We will also transform bacteria into GFP which is mainly from the jelly fish Aequorea Victoria. The GFP causes the the jelly fish to fluorescent and glow in the dark. After the transformation, bacteria starts to make the GFP which causes them to glow a green color under a ultraviolet light.

For example, wings-clipped P-elements that lack the inverted repeats (not able to be mobilized themselves), which are not internally deleted and can produce a transposase source, can be introduced to the internally-deleted P-element to provide transposase and therefore allow transposition to occur. The provided transposase recognizes and binds to inverted repeats on the internally-deleted P-element, which introduces nicks in the DNA beside the inverted repeats. This allows the element to excise and insert into a new location. If it excises neatly out of the DNA, a deletion will not occur. However, if it excises to a homologue towards the right or the left, due to an error in the excision process, a deletion will occur through this pre-meiotic recombination event.

It was also shown that the area where the genes moved into were not random but, in fact, had a particular method of where and when genes would transpose. To modern genetics, these ideas supported the idea that an organism’s genome could actually spur mutations if it could increase the survival of the organism. These ideas also change how we view genomics because now areas where there are noncoding regions could in fact have been areas where these transposons could have existed but have since lost function. Therefore, we can study these regions to find evidence that they may have previously been transposons. They may have lost their function due to the increase stability of our environment or some other reason. Interestingly, her work has some larger complications on evolution as a whole. In fact, her ideas suggest that evolution may not have needed generations upon generations to produce a result, but with transposons, could occur much faster than thought possible. This is because not just one codon is being mutated but entire sections are being moved around. However, it is important to note that the transposons are not imparting advantages with every occurrence but rather are increasing the variation

For this experiment, E. coli was best for genetic engineering because of their size, and their fast reproduction (Spilios, 2017). E. coli will be genetically transformed using an engineered plasmid. A plasmid is a circular piece of DNA which independently replicates and multiplies because it has its own origin of replication (Spilios, 2017). The pGLO is the plasmid used in this experiment. Plasmids are used as vectors and they contain manipulated genes such as genes coding for antibiotic resistance for drugs like ampicillin. This antibiotic resistance of such serves as the selectable marker in genetic transformation and for genetic transformation to proceed, the cell must reach competency which is the physiological state that is required for the vector plasmid to get into the cell for transformation (Spilios, 2017). While competency can be reached naturally in some organism, it must be reached artificially in E. coli through treatment with CaCl2 and exposing them to heat shock using incubation (Spilios, 2017).

After recognizing the restriction sites, the restriction enzymes cut off the DNA strands at these points, leaving sticky ends on the original DNA fragment. The restriction enzymes can also travel to other cells to cut off DNA sequences, the sequences that can match the bases of the original sequence. The sticky end will find other sticky end to form a new recombined DNA sequence, obeying the law of base-pairing.

Translocations can cause strong transcriptional factors to be moved close to a target oncogene which will increase its expression. Or, they can result in the creation of a fusion gene that encodes a novel oncogenic protein.

Did you know that we have a type of DNA that can move around in the genome? According to yourgenome.org, a genome is an organism’s complete set of genetic instructions. Barbara McClintock studied and discovered mobile genetic elements, which is the DNA that can move around in the genome. Barbara McClintock discovered mobile genetics because of her father despite her economic status and her gender.

She emphasized that transposition wasn’t just about turning corn color genes on and off, but also possibly a way for the genome to reorganize itself quickly as a response to environmental conditions. However, most scientists were puzzled and hostile towards her ideas. Though she eventually gave up trying to convince them and stopped publishing her data, she didn’t let that get her down, because she “knew she was right”. But there were geneticists who did appreciate her work. In the 1970s, a molecular basis of transposition was discovered, and the connection between transposition and antibacterial resistance and cancer was made. Starting in 1971, McClintock began to receive a long list of awards, including the National Medal of Science awarded to her by President Nixon, and in 1983, she won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for her work on transposition. Afterwards, she remained at Cold Spring Harbor and gave talks on her work until her death. McClintock’s work is relevant even nowadays. It was found that a large percentage of many genomes including that of humans is composed of transposons. Because transposons can jump around and insert themselves into protein-coding sequences, they could cause cancer. In order for the cells to protect their genomes, recently, small RNAs called piRNAs were discovered to target histone methylation to transposon sequences to stop the transposons from moving around. Additionally,

A transposon is a section of DNA whose location can be moved, or transposed, from a plasmid to a chromosome, or vice versa. Transposons are necessary if recipient DNA are missing a sequence that complements the donor DNA. Also referred to as “jumping genes,” transposons are unlike typical DNA which usually does not move around, and are flanked by inverted repeat sequences which contribute to their ability to move around.

Transgenesis is the process of inserting foreign DNA from one species into a different species. A transgenic organism describes an organism which has undergone transgenesis and contains

Epigenetic (defined as reversible regulation of various genome functions, occurring without change in DNA sequence)(6, 7) , modification has recently emerged as one of the

Structural variation is an important type of human genetic variation that contributes to phenotypic diversity (Nguyen et al., 2006). There are microscopic and submicroscopic structural variants which include deletions, duplications, and large copy number variants as well as insertions, inversions, and translocations (Feuk et al., 2006). These are several different types of structural variants in the human genome and they are quite distinctive from each other. A translocation is a chromosomal rearrangement, at the inter- or intra-chromosomal level, where a section of a chromosome changes position but with no change in the whole DNA content (Feuk et al., 2006). A Section of DNA that is larger than 1 kb and occurs in two or more copies per haploid

My best bacterial friend has genes that has antibiotic resistance that I must have. There are many different ways for me to get ahold of them or transferred into my genes. One way to receive the gene is by the use of a plasmid. A plasmid is circular piece of replicating dna that is separate from chromosomal dna. In order to manipulate the plasmids, i will need to mutate them by using restriction enzymes, PCR, and ligation. Being able to use restriction enzymes to cut portions of genomes and have them inserted into a plasmid, make it easy for mutations (mutagenesis) to occur. Also, PCR can enable mutagenesis. Each plasmid is mapped out with information that includes the restriction enzyme sites and the origins of their replications. I could

Did you know that with the science of DNA manipulation, animal cadavers can be turned into insulin for diabetics? Back in the 80's scientists isolated the human gene for insulin and transferred it into bacteria. Now bacteria cultures are used to produce large amounts of human insulin. DNA manipulation is especially important in medicine, where it holds the hope of curing genetic diseases such as Huntington's, and even some types of cancer. There are several major types of DNA-manipulation enzymes used by living cells. The first type is DNA polymerase, which cells use to replicate their own DNA. The next type is DNA ligase, which joins 2 pieces of DNA to create a single piece. The third type is restriction enzymes, which appear to be made only by bacteria. Restriction enzymes are very important enzymes that are vital to our manipulation of DNA (Rapoza, DNA, 2).

Bacterial transformation is the process of moving genes from a living thing to another with the help of a plasmid.The plasmid is able to help replicate the chromosomes by themselves; laboratories use these to aid in gene multiplication. Bacterial transformation is relevant in everyday lives due to the fact that almost all plasmids carry a bacterial origin of replication and an antibiotic resistance gene(“Addgene: Protocol - How to Do a Bacterial