A Body And Mind Dichotomy, Or Cartesian Daulism

What is the mind-body problem? The mind-body problem asks the question, are the mind and body separate substances of elements of the same substance? In this paper I wish to propose, and try to provide support for Descartes notion of the immaterial mind, by critically discussing the view of substance dualism, pertaining to the relationship between the mind and body. The two arguments of which I will provide in this paper to support this view are divisibility and disembodied existence. There are two fundamentally different substances in this universe, physical and mental properties, this paper will explore both of these substances (8).

Discussion of issues related to non-normative sexual and gender identities as related to mental health began in the 19th century (Drescher, 2010). Initially medical and psychiatric providers viewed issues related to gender identity as resulting from delusional thought processes (Drescher, 2010). As a result the concept of surgery as a solution to gender identity differences was viewed as unnecessary and ultimately an incorrect form of treatment (Drescher, 2010). In 1952 the first gender reassignment surgery was performed in Denmark on an American citizen (Drescher, 2010). The publicity in the American media that followed this surgery brought the concept of gender identity to the public eye. During the 1960s research about gender identity started to develop and it was the work of Money, Stoller, Benjamin, and Green that ultimately change professional and public concept of Gender Identity (Drescher, 2010). These four individuals were among the first to conduct clinical and academic research on gender identity and gender roles (Drescher, 2010). As a result of their research beliefs about non-normative gender identity shifted from a problem of the mind to a biological disorder that was fixed and should be treated with

To truly understand why there is even a fight over sex-reassignment surgery, one must first comprehend what the surgery is and why it is an option. Sex-reassignment surgery is the final step in a three-part treatment for gender dysphoria. Gender Dysphoria, previously known as Gender Identity Disorder (GID), is considered a mental disorder described as a severe disconnect between one’s biological sex and gender identity. Generally, mental disorders are treated with psychotherapy or medications but, when it comes to trans inmates, the genitals serve as a mental block that constantly reminds the trans person of their gender dysphoria; which brings on the need for SRS. In “Medical Transgressions in America’s Prisons: Defending Transgender Prisoners’ Access to Transition-Related Care”, Esinam Agbemenu states that the treatment for gender dysphoria comes in three parts. The first step is for transgender patients to participate in psychotherapy or psychiatric counseling, which allows the patient to express their distress and permit the medical professional to properly diagnose and create a proper treatment plan. In step two, the trans person must openly live as their identified gender

These studies were published in response to the growing visibility of individuals who cross dressed, gender disguised, or to use the twenty-first century umbrella term, transgender. As a result of these studies, professionals concluded that such individuals suffer from mental disorders. Reports like these were published into the twentieth century. While these studies were conducted and written by doctors who were not and did not identify as gender nonconformists. One of the first known transgender persons to publish during this time was the British doctor, Michael Dillon. His 1946 work, “Self: A Study in Ethics and Endocrinology,” defends transgender people identify as a gender that is different from the one assigned to them by doctors. Dillon has undergone female-to-male sex change surgery. He also argues against doctor’s claims that transgender people suffer from mental disorders. This book failed to reach a broad audience and as a consequence, the 1950s and 1960s also brought numerous studies about transgender individuals by doctors who continued the tradition of claiming transgender people are

Chapter five dealt with biological sexes and gender. The chapter begins by stating that there are more than two sexes, contrary to popular belief. There are at least three sexes: male, female, and intersex individuals, who have genital ambiguity. Most of this chapter discussed the difficulties of intersex individuals’ face in the society. These individuals are often ignored or forced to live their life ashamed of their bodies. In the United States these individuals are seen as abnormality, or medical accidents, that are to be corrected through surgery. In many instances the surgeries make the individual a female by removing any male anatomy within them. This is performed since many believe that gender identity is solely developed by environmental

Through examining the ways intersex individuals are treated in a medical setting, one can see how science only allows binary bodies to be created. Crawley et al. (2007) discusses intersex individuals and the standard treatment of intersex children, being to alter their ‘abnormal’ genitalia to resemble one of the two genders. This has become the normal treatment as if this is necessary, but the only threat the child is in danger of is not fitting perfectly into the heteronormative standard of correct genitalia. Because surgical intervention proves we alter and change one’s sex, it becomes difficult to claim that sex and gender are solely biological, when clearly one’s gender and sex becomes largely altered the moment they are born into society. Anne Fausto Sterling, outlines her concept of the five sexes, explaining that intersex is a term used to describe any individual that doesn’t fit into the narrow categories of male and female. She explains that the same process that was in play in the Middle Ages is

“The Five Sexes Revisited” focused on the importance of therapy over surgery. Medical ethicist Laurence B. McCullough of the Center for Medical Ethics and Health Policy at Baylor Collefe of Medicine in Houston, Texas “contend[ed] that in the process of assigning gender, physicians should minimize what he calls irreversible assignments: taking steps such as the surgical removal

In John Colapinto’s book, As Nature Made Him: The Boy Who Was Raised as A Girl, he explores the true story of David Reimer. Reimer was born a male, but due to a horribly botched procedure he lost his penis and under advice of a “medical expert” raised him as a girl. The book is broken into two parts, the first being an expose on John Money and his influence on gender politics and research. The second being the story of David Reimer, a child raised as “Brenda” despite being born male and the effects it would have him. Colapinto’s perspective is based on interviews with David himself, including his family, friends, and school teachers.

The mind is perhaps the most fascinating part of the human body due to its complexity and ability to rationalize. In essence, the mind-body problem studies the relation of the mind to the body, and states that each human being seems to embody two unique and somewhat contradictory natures. Each human contains both a nature of matter and physicality, just like any other object that contains atoms in the universe. However, mankind also is constituted of something beyond materialism, which includes its ability to rationalize and be self-aware. This would imply that mankind is not simply another member of the world of matter because some of its most distinctive features cannot be accounted for in this manner. There are obvious differences between physical and mental properties. Physical properties are publically accessible, and have weight, texture, and are made of matter. Mental properties are not publically accessible, and have phenomenological texture and intentionality (Stewart, Blocker, Petrik, 2013). This is challenging to philosophers, because man cannot be categorized as a material or immaterial object, but rather a combination of both mind and body (Stewart, Blocker, Petrik, 2013). Man embodies mind-body dualism, meaning he is a blend of both mind and matter (Stewart, Blocker, Petrick, 2013). The mind-body problem creates conflict among philosophers, especially when analyzing physicalism in its defense. This paper outlines sound

This is a huge shift from the DSM-IV that used the term “gender identity disorder” to diagnosis and treat individuals who felt dissonance between their biological sex and their chosen gender. Due to the fact that it was seen as a disorder, much like homosexuality until 1973, gender identity disorder often gave society the ammunition needed to discriminate against transgender individuals. By labeling transgender individuals with a disorder, it was placing it in the same category as Borderline Personality Disorder or Obsessive Personality Disorders – disorders that could be treated and need a “cure.” The criteria for gender dysphoria makes it clear that the issue isn’t in the inability to conform to gender stereotypes. Instead, a problem occurs when there is great distress of a person’s biological gender and gender identity. In order to be diagnosed with gender dysphoria, there are criteria that must first be met. Though not every criteria needs to be met for a diagnosis, it is a good start. (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) The symptoms are as

ABSTRACT: Cartesian dualism and the union of mind and body are often understood as conceptions that contradict each other. Diachronic interpretations maintain that Descartes was first a dualist (in the Meditations) and later on developed his stance on the union of mind and body (Passions). Some authors find here a problem without solution. Nevertheless, in the last two decades, some interpretations have been developed intending to give a positive solution to the difficult relation between Cartesian dualism and the union of mind and body. The problem that I find in most of them is that they try to show no incoherence between Descartes' dualism and his conception of the union and

is and also who brought the mind and body problem to light. This will be done by

Sex is usually defined biologically, and even its definition can be based on different criteria such as the genetic sequence of a person, their gonads, their hormones, or their external genitalia(Poston et al, 231) . Gender, however, is a social role which can be fluid. Gender and gender roles can change over time and influence individuals. For example, Conley 286) in the 17th century, women who were obese were considered beautiful and desirable, the ideal feminine shape, whereas today obese women are generally considered undesirable and non-feminine. This shows how the female figure and idea of an ideal feminine form changes over time. Also, the gender roles ascribed according to society can influence individual actions. For example, (Conley, 275) Donald McCloskey was an economist who underwent sexual reassignment surgery to become Deirdre McCloskey. Donald changed his gender to become a female, and in the process noticed that her female self differed from her previous male self. After the surgery, McCloskey lost weight easily, felt duty bound to wash the dishes, and thought less about sex. This shows how despite the brain being the same before and after surgery, McCloskeys’s behaviors after surgery reflect social constructs of

The Mind-Body problem arises to Philosophy when we wonder what is the relationship between the mental states, like beliefs and thoughts, and the physical states, like water, human bodies and tables. For the purpose of this paper I will consider physical states as human bodies because we are thinking beings, while the other material things have no mental processes. The question whether mind and body are the same thing, somehow related, or two distinct things not related, has been asked throughout the history of Philosophy, so some philosophers tried to elaborate arrangements and arguments about it, in order to solve the problem and give a satisfactory answer to the question. This paper will argue that the Mind-Body Dualism, a view in

Christine Overall and Cressida Heyes are two authors who argue whether transracial surgery is legitimate under the condition of that transsexual surgery is acceptable. Their arguments are opposing to each other. Overall insists that both surgeries should be acceptable while Heyes does not agree with Overall. They both agree with that race and sex-gender are socially constructed. Thus, Overall has no problem with the concept of identity changes—for both sex-gender and race—however, Heyes argues that they are not constructed in the same way.