A Research Study On The Reduction Or Elimination Of The Disproportionate Effects Of Prostate Cancer

Each year approximately 233,000 men will be diagnosed with prostate cancer (Eggener, Cifu, & Nabhan, 2015). In 2015, prostate cancer was the second most common cancer related cause of death among United States men (Eggener, et. al., 2015). While the majority of prostate cancers are slow growing with a 5-year survival rate of approximately 98%, statistics show that when prostate cancer is identified as metastatic, the 5-year survival rate dramatically drops down to 20-25% (Eggener, et. al., 2015). According to these numbers alone, it appears screening for prostate cancer would be a well-accepted practice. However, current methods of screening for this cancer are controversial and has lead organizations like the U.S Preventative Service Task Force (USPSTF) and the American Cancer Society (ACS) to different guidelines for screening.

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the commonest malignancy tumour in men and is second in cancer related death after lung cancer. PCa is mainly adenocarcinomas originating from the cortex of the gland (D’Elia et al. 2014).

Benign prostate hyperplasia (BPH) and prostate cancer share a few similarities, elevated prostate-specific antigen (PSA). Along with enlargement of prostate gland that causes urinary symptoms such as, frequent urination, hesitancy, dribbling, and frequent nighttime urination. However, they are quite different which is why more tests need to be done to confirm one or the other condition. These two diseases are also similar in the fact that they both cause an enlargement of the prostate. However with BPH the central portion of the prostate is enlarged and with prostate cancer more commonly the lateral lobes or side of the prostate are enlarged, but can affect any were on the prostate. Both can even be detected by a digital rectal exam however

Tumour markers are detectable cancer cells that are found in the spinal fluid, urine or blood (Craft, Gordon & Tiziani, 2011). They can include enzymes, hormones, antigens or genes (Craft, Gordon & Tiziani, 2011).Tumour markers are beneficial, in that they are able to identify high risk cancers in individuals (Craft, Gordon & Tiziani, 2011). They also help by diagnosing different cancer types (Craft, Gordon & Tiziani, 2011).There are different markers that are able to identify different cancer types (Craft, Gordon & Tiziani, 2011). For example, Prostrate-specific antigen (PSA) identifies prostate cancer cells and a-fetoprotein (AFP) identifies Hepatic cancer cells (Craft, Gordon & Tiziani, 2011). There is a disadvantage of using tumour markers, and that is that some non-cancerous tissues produce markers (Craft, Gordon & Tiziani, 2011). Therefore, to determine whether a patient has cancer, additional tests are necessary (Craft, Gordon & Tiziani, 2011).

Prostate cancer is the second most common cancer and it is the second leading cause of cancer death in American men according to the American Cancer Society(ACS) ( 2016). Older age is the strongest risk factor for the development of prostate cancer. Approximately 1 in 7 men will be diagnosed with prostate cancer during his lifetime (ACS, 2016). There are more than 2.9 million prostate cancer survivors in the United States (ACS, 2016). The risk of dying from prostate cancer is 2.9 percent, with seventy percent of deaths occurring after age 75(ACS, 2016; Howlader, Krapcho, Neyman,Aminou et al, 2011). The use of the prostate-specific antigen testing transformed prostate cancer screening in the 1990’s (Up to date) . PSA screening for prostate

Prostate cancer is the most common cancer in American men aside from skin cancer. Out of six American men at least one of them will be diagnosed with colon cancer. The prostate is a small gland shaped like a walnut that is in the center of a man 's body within the pelvis. The prostate makes a milky fluid that carries sperm during ejaculation. It is wrapped around the tube that carries urine out of the body (the urethra). It sits just below the bladder.

One future cancer screening test for prostate cancer is called EPCA -2 testing. “EPCA (early prostate cancer antigen) is a protein that is present in the blood in higher amounts in men who have prostate cancer than in men without cancer” (Prostate.net, n.d.). A 2007 article, according to Prostate.net, published in the journal Urology provided evidence that EPCA-2 testing was more cancer specific than PSA. If this is true, the test “could reduce unnecessary biopsies and the over diagnosis and over treatment of prostate cancer” (Prostate.net, n.d.). As of 2009 EPCA-2 research is continuing (Prostate.net, n.d.).

Cancer begins when cells start to grow uncontrollably. Prostate cancer occurs in a male’s prostate gland (a small walnut shaped gland that produces the seminal fluid that nourishes and transports sperm) (Mayoclinic.org, 2015). Prostate cancer is one of the most common types of cancer in men (Mayoclinic.org, 2015). There are 4 types of prostate cancer such as sarcomas, small cell carcinomas, neuroendocrine tumors and transitional cell carcinoma. Most prostate cancer is considered to be adenocarcinomas due to the cancer developing from the gland cells (American Cancer Society.org, 2016).

In the case with over diagnosing, the screening process for determining if a person has prostate cancer. The US Preventive Service Task Force (USPSTF) states, “the potential benefit of testing does not outweigh the expected harms” meaning there can be more harm than good. The controversy fixed whether prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing being suitable and helpful when diagnosing prostate cancer. It is recommended that the doctor talks to the patient about how they are feeling and listen to them if they are having difficulties urinating. The doctor can also examine the prostate itself by performing a Digital rectal exam (DRE). The other controversy is over-treatment of prostate cancer. Its controversial due to the medication the person and haw potently they are, ““infection or inflammation of the prostate (prostatitis) may increase the chance for prostate cancer while another study shows infection may help prevent prostate cancer by increasing blood to the area.” Every man’s body is different and is going to react differently to

One of the reasons that people often receive a late prostate cancer diagnosis is because they may notice any signs. Most people do not notice any enlarged prostate symptoms until the cancer is advanced. There are a number of prostate cancer signs & symptoms a person may notice if he is in the advanced stages. Below is a list of prostate cancer symptoms:

There are no consistent or obvious signs of prostate cancer while it is still in the early

In the early stages, symptoms indicating that prostate cancer may have developed are rarely seen, but there are some clinical signs and symptoms that can help determine the presence of this cancer. A neoplasm is a new and abnormal growth of tissue in some part of the body. “If the neoplasm is large enough to encroach on the bladder neck, signs and symptoms of urinary obstruction occur (difficulty and frequency of urination, urinary retention, and decreased size and force of the urinary stream)” (Pellico, 2013, p. 956). Urinary obstruction could, therefore, potentially indicate prostate cancer. Another symptom that may be present in the early stages of prostate cancer is hematuria, which is blood in urine. As the cancer begins to grow, it

Prostate carcinoma is the most commonly diagnosed cancer and the second leading cause of cancer death in men in the United States.1 Although local therapies with curative intent, such as radical prostatectomy and radiotherapy, may result in durable disease control, up to 30% of patients experience biochemical progression.2 Patients who are at a high risk for failed definitive local therapy represent ideal candidates for adjuvant therapy or for clinical trials of systemic . Patient consisted of digital rectal examination and serum PSA , which were done every 3 months for year 1, semiannually from years 2 to 5 and annually . Biochemical progression was defined as a sustained increase on 2 or more occasions of serum total PSA greater than 0.2

Because there are multiple ways in which cancer can spread throughout the body, prostate cancer is also divided into multiple stages. In the first stage, cancer cells are discovered in one part of the prostate only. In the second stage, cancer cells have spread throughout the entire prostate, but has not made its way out of the organ, and onto others. In the third stage, the cancer cells have made its way onto the exterior of the prostate organ and there is a possibility that it is making its way towards the seminal vesicles; and in the fourth stage, the cells have moved past the seminal vesicles and are making its way onto other organs, slowly spreading throughout the entire body. Before patients are diagnosed with prostate cancer, they will start by experiencing signs and symptoms that will mostly cause discomfort when urinating or pain in the abdominal or lower back region. However, they must be diagnosed with prostate cancer by a professional because the symptoms of prostate cancer are also extremely similar to the ones of other diseases related to the prostate. It is crucial that they are not diagnosed with the wrong disease as this would cause even more harm among the patients.

this large prospective study, we observed a weak positive association between serum levels of glucose and prostate cancer death, but no associations were observed for triglycerides and total cholesterol. Similar positive associations were seen for glucose and triglycerides with overall, CVD or other deaths. Hypercholesterolemia was positively associated with CVD death.