Abu Arrayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni

Among the many scholars working in the House of Wisdom, there was Al-Khawarizmi, known as the father of algebra. Born around 800 in Baghdad, al-Khwarizmi worked in the House of Wisdom as a scholar. Being involved in the center’s translation of ancient scientific knowledge helped him develop a unique knowledge of the accumulated wisdom of the world. His importance lies in his discoveries of mathematical knowledge which was later transferred to Arab and European scholars. His masterpiece, a book of clear explanations of what would become algebra, was his entire life’s work compiled into one collection of information. The word algebra comes from the Arabic word, al-jabr, which means “completion”. In his work, al-Khwarizmi explains the principles of solving linear and quadratic equations, the concept that an equation can be created to find the value of an unknown variable. Another crucial work of al-Khwarizmi’s was The Book on the Art of Reckoning of the Hindus, which introduced the numbering system used in the Islamic culture to the west. This is the numerical system that is still used today and offered many advantages over the existing Roman numerals. An

Document B is by Ibn Al-Athir and talks about the First Crusade. It is a short document that describes a lot of the First Crusade.

Astrologers- People who were experts in the reading of astronomy and recounting it to another person’s life.

* Describe and discuss the significance of Roman religion and astrology 2.1; 2.2; 3.1; 3.2; 4.2; 5.2

Abbas, and Mehmed II (re)built their capitals to strategically place themselves in a position of power. Abbas changed the the capital of the Safavid Empire from Qavin to Isfahans due to the lurking threat of the Uzebek invasion. Isfahan was a more centralized and secure location Safavid Empire since territories and boundaries were consistently changing in the early early pre-modern era. As for Mehmed II, his lands spread form lower eastern Europe to Anatolia to the borders of the Safavid Empire. Thus, it was necessary for him to place himself in position where he could manage his newly claimed territories, and establish a stronghold to launch future Ottoman wars into Europe. In contrast to the Abbas the Great and  Mehmed II Akbar the Great,

Moreover, the transfer of ideas also had an intellectual impact in fields such as astronomy, medicine, and mathematics. To begin with, Claudius Ptolemy, a Greek scholar, created a model of how the solar system is arranged, the Earth in the center (document one). Claudius Ptolemy most likely described the inverse with the Earth in the center because of the limited technology during his time period, some time around 100 AD. Persian Muslim scholar, Al-Biruni, describes the Hindu view of how the earth is shaped and that the earth is the center of the universe (document six). Al-Biruni is a Persian Muslim and not a Hindu and therefore writes about these conceptions with the point of view of an outsider. During this time period, various scholars came up with

Astronomy and astrology are very similar, yet different. Astronomy is the study of the universe and what's inside of it, as well as other universes. Astrology is the study of how the actions and movements of things in our universe affect what happens on earth, and people. Although they both deal with the universe and one was founded by the other, they also have many things that set them apart from one another. This essay will talk about the differences and similarities of astronomy and astrology and how each is used.

Astrology is defined as the study of the movements and relative positions of celestial bodies interpreted as having an influence on human affairs and the natural world. During the Elizabethan era astrology, was used as an influence for day to day affairs. The most known figures of the Elizabethan era, Queen Elizabeth herself and Shakespeare, used astrology. Astrology was an influence on Shakespeare’s plays and Queen Elizabeth’s decisions in daily life. Astrology not only influenced its most prominent figures but the northern part of Europe as a whole. The common person in Europe had a belief in astrology that helped influenced their daily life. Astrology was a popular belief everywhere in Europe. During the Elizabethan age, astrology influenced

The Abbasids were the first ones to study and translate important Greek and Indian mathematical book like Euclid's geometry text the Elements. They adopted a very Greek approach to mathematics of formulating theorems precisely and proving them formally in Euclid's ways.

The mathematics had been developed for four thousand years, and Muslim inherited mathematics from Egyptian, Mesopotamians, Sumerian and Babylonian. Greek geometry and Hindu arithmetic and algebra reached at an early stage in Muslim lands and were translated in centers such as Gondeshapur and Baghdad. Starting out at intellectual center of Islam, they soon criticizing those concepts and formulation by finding inaccurate and inconsistent information and adapt their own ideas. At the same period in Western Europe, they still use Roman numerals and abacus to calculate numbers. The Babylonian already had concept of bases sixty computation with place value numerals. Muslim then developed a decimal arithmetic based on place value and joint concept of zero. In the ninth century, Banu Musa brothers who were three gifted sons of Musa, Muhammad, Ahmad, and Hassan ibn Musa lived in Baghdad studied problems in constructing interrelated geometrical figures. Later the characteristic of those line, space of geometrical shape was given intense study and utilized sophisticated geometry in designing waterwheels, in improving farming equipment, in developing new type of weapon used at war. Another person who make significant contribution on mathematics is Muhammad ibn al-Khwarizmi, a Persian born in the eighth century. He was the first person who originated both terms “algebra”, and

3[Astrology has been practiced for over six thousand years], and 4[millions of people have based their lives and life choices on it.] 5[Until the eighteenth century, astrology was even used as a form of medical diagnosis.] 6[Its diagnoses and prescriptions were considered at the time to be far more reliable and efficacious than those of the medical practitioners of the time.]

Omar was also a poet, philosopher, and astronomer. Omar’s works were translated in 1851, which was research on Euclid’s axioms. In the medieval period, he expanded on Khwarizmi’s and the Greeks mathematic works. He only worked with cubic equations only and focused on geometric and algebraic solutions of equations. In 1145AD, Al-Khwarizmi’s book was translated by Robert Chester, which made it possible for algebra to be introduced to Europe. After algebra was introduced in Europe, European mathematicians developed and expanded on algebra concepts. Even though algebra began in the Arabic countries, once European mathematicians obtained the information of algebra, they became the leaders of mathematical discoveries in the world (“Mathematics”).

Popper says that Astrology is not science because astrologers were too impressed with confirming evidence. Also astrology is not falsifiable. Astrologers make vague predictions and can explain any apparent

Laudan (1983) claimed that the problem of demarcation can be traced back to ancient Greece and Aristotle. Aristotle asserted that from general laws one can deduce scientific theories that are consequently truthful statements. Pseudoscientific theories according to Aristotle are not deductively formulated and therefore cannot be considered scientific. However this method of demarcation is flawed: pseudosciences such as astrology can be vacuously true and most are reluctant to say astrology is scientific. We can already see from this early stage that the distinctions between science and pseudoscience are murky and the formulation of demarcation can be challenging.

Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious, mythological, and astrological practices of pre-history: vestiges of these are still found in astrology, a discipline long interwoven with public and governmental astronomy, and not completely disentangled from it until a few centuries ago in the Western World . In some cultures astronomical data was used for astrological prognostication.