Adaptive Immune System For A Newly Emerged Virus Entering A Naive Individual 's System

The immune system is made up of several types of cells that work together to fight infections. Lymph cells (called lymphocytes) are the main type of cell in the adaptive immune system. There are 2 types of lymph cells: T cells and B cells. When B cells respond to an infection, they change into plasma cells. The plasma cells are found mainly in the bone marrow—the soft, inner part of some bones. The plasma cells

“Humoral immunity is a type of immune response that depends on antibodies.” The response begins when a pathogen binds to a B cell. The B cell will engulf the pathogen and display a part of the antigen on its exterior. Once a T cell is exposed to the antigen-presenting B cell, the T cell will release proteins to activate the B cell. Now that the B cell is activated, it will produce antibodies to cause the pathogens to clump together. In the last stage of humoral immunity, phagocytes will engulf and destroy the pathogens.

The body’s protection against viruses, bacteria and other types of invasions is our immune system (Tortora, 2014).

a. This function is mediated by T cells and B cells (memory cells) in our body via adaptive immunity. The adaptive immune system evolved in early vertebrates and allows for a stronger immune response as well as immunological memory, where each pathogen is “remembered” by a signature antigen. The adaptive immune response is antigen-specific and requires the recognition of specific “non-self” antigens during a process called antigen presentation. Antigen specificity allows for the generation of responses that are tailored to specific pathogens or pathogen-infected cells. The ability to mount these tailored responses is maintained in the body by memory cells. Should a pathogen infect the body more than once, these specific memory cells are used to quickly eliminate it. So basically killer T cells will identify antigens present on foreign cells. These antigens are not found in any of the cells inside our body. Therefore, T cells will identify them and kill them.

Lymphocytes that become part of cell-mediated immunity arm of the adaptive immune response develop in the:

Adaptive immunity (p.446): The body’s ability to recognize and defend itself against distinct invaders and their products.

The organs that make up the lymphatic and immune system are the tonsils, spleen, thymus gland, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels. White blood cells (leukocytes), red blood cells (erythrocytes), plasma, and platelets (thrombocytes) make up the blood. Lymphocytes are leukocytes (white blood cells) that help the body fight off diseases. Two types of lymphocytes are B cells and T cells. Lymphocytes recognize antigens, or foreign substances/matter, in the body. Lymphocytes are a classification of agranulocytes, or cells (-cytes) without (a-) granules (granul/o) in the cytoplasm. B cells are created from stem cells, which are located in the bone marrow. B cells respond to antigens by becoming plasma cells. These plasma cells then create antibodies. Memory B cells produce a stronger response with the next exposure to the antigen. B cells fight off infection and bacteria while T cells defend against viruses and cancer cells. A hormone created by the thymus gland called thymosin changes lymphocytes into T cells. The thymus gland is active when you are a child and slowly shrinks, as you get older. T cells bind to the antigens on the cells and directly attack them. T cells secrete lymphokines that increase T cell production and directly kill cells with antigens. There are three types of T cells: cytotoxic T cells, helper T cells, and memory T cells.

The memory T cells can differentiate into Central memory T cells (TCM), effector memory T cells (TEM), or tissue-resident memory T cells (TRM). In addition, these memory T cells produce more IFN-gamma and other cytokines that recruit other effector cells. Also, CD4 T cell help is required for CD8 T-cell memory and involves CD40 and IL-2 signaling. The differentiation of Memory T cells into effector TH1 and CTLs cells can help eliminate this viral infection in the ways that I described in part (a).

This essay will be covering different epidemics such as Spanish Flu, small pox and Ebola. I will also, be looking at what research and practises are being done around immunisation and controlling future epidemics and why this is crucial for the human population. However, first I’ll discuss how the immune system works, the immune response involves “two complementary systems, the humoral and cellular systems”. (David L. Nelson and Michael M. Cox, 2013, p. 174) The humoral immune system is aimed at “bacterial infections and extracellular viruses” ”.( David L. Nelson and Michael M. Cox, 2013, p. 174) whereas, the cellular systems involves macrophages, T cells and B cells. When a cell gets infected it becomes an antigen presenting cell which is detected by a macrophage, this triggers clonal expansion of complementary T killer and T helper cells. Whilst the T killer cells destroy the infected cells, T helper produce cytokines which trigger clonal selection and expansion of complementary B cells. B cells then divide into memory cells and plasma cells

The adaptive immune response is antigen-specific and requires the recognition of specific “non-self” antigens during a process called antigen presentation. Antigen specificity allows for the generation of responses that are tailored to specific pathogens or pathogen-infected cells. The ability to mount these tailored responses is maintained in the body by "memory cells". Should a pathogen infect the body more than once, these specific memory cells are used to quickly eliminate it. so basically killer T cells will identify antigens present on foreign cells. These antigens are not found in any of the cells inside our body. So T cells will identify them and kill them.

Innate immune responses are known as the non-specific manner which composes the cells and defend the host from infection by other organism by mechanism. The adaptive immunity represents the antigen-specific immune response. Compare to innate immune response, adaptive response is more complex. In adaptive response the antigen needs to be recognised and processed. The adaptive immune system creates immune

The immune system serves as the body’s defense mechanism against infectious invaders such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, and much more. The immune system has two types of immunities: innate and adaptive. Innate immunity refers to the defense system you are born with. It helps to protect you against antigens and has barriers that keep harmful materials from entering the

The human body is a complex system, embedded with defense mechanisms to prevent the invasion of the unknown. Not only does it protect itself from the external breaches, but also has to beware for all the potential things that can go wrong within the system. When a potential threat is detected, a trained army of cells will immediately reach the site and work towards achieving balance; this is called immunity.

The necessary elements of innate immunity are called Natural killer (NK) which can also be stated as CD3-CD56+ lymphocytes. They help to communicate between dendritic cells and T cells. The main roles of NK cells are to control the chronic HIV infection and in HIV defense (Anon, 2017).

Our immune system is made up of two parts that work together to keep us healthy. The first part is called the innate immune system, it is made up mostly of ‘scavenger’ and ‘killer’ cells that fight off bacterial infections and give the body a general defense against harmful substances. The second part of the immune system is called the adaptive immune system. This part