Advantages And Disadvantages Of Histamines

These drugs were utilized in order to demonstrate the positive and negative effects on cell communication. Cell communication consists of three steps: reception, transduction, and response. Reception involves the binding of a ligand and a receptor; transduction is a “cascade” of actions between molecules and their proteins, and response is the change that occurs afterwards (1).

Constipation, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, upset stomach, loss of appetite, body aches and pains, breast increasing, cough, dizziness, trouble sleeping, weakness, flushing and sweating, vaginal bleeding, and weight loss.

Pharmacokinetics: Oral dosing up to twelve hours for a majority of patients, also a 24-hour dosing interval for selected patients. Extended- release tablet for administered orally could contain up to 450mg.

Administering orally is not recommended because it has a rapid first-pass rate which causes inactivation of the drug. In protein binding, Narcan is weakly bound to plasma proteins mainly albumin. Plasma albumin is the major binding constituent but significant binding of naloxone also occurs to plasma constituents other than albumin. In distribution Narcan is rapidly distributed in the body and is also very lipophillic and easily crosses the blood-brain-barrier. It can also cross the placenta. The duration of action in distribution depends on the dose and route of administration. The quickest effect is noted following an IV injection, the onset of action usually occurs within two minutes. If administered through IM or SQ, the effects will begin within two to five minutes. Narcan is metabolized in the liver and primarily undergoes glucuronidation to form naloxone-3-glucuronide. Metabolism of Narcan is dependent upon the route of administration as well. An IV dose of Narcan will last for approximately one hour. The IM and SQ injections will continue their effects for several hours. The serum half-life of Narcan in adults range from 30 to 81 minutes. Narcan is excreted as a metabolite in urine within six hours. It does not matter if Narcan is taken on an empty of full stomach because it has poor bioavailability in the gastrointestinal (Drugs.com,

Histamine is a chemical produced, stored and has multiple roles within the body. Histamine is part of your immune system responses and is released when we have allergic reactions (a reaction could be a runny nose or sneezing). It also manages physiological functions in the gut. Histamine plays a vital role in our body’s defense system and its main purpose is to keep your body safe.

When you experience an allergic or inflammatory response, histamines are produced within your body, causing smooth muscle contraction and capillary dilation, (as well as those annoying bouts of sneezing, wheezing, itching, and generally being miserable).

The word histamine may be familiar to most people having allergies and taking medications labelled

Sarpogrelate lacked prominent 5-HT1-like, 5-HT3, beta, H1, H2 and M3 antagonist activity and weakly blocked alpha 1-adrenoceptors (pKB = 6.30). (S)-M-1 showed weak affinity for 5-HT1-like receptors (pKB = 6.30), alpha 1-(pKB = 6.80) and beta- (pKB = 6.54) adrenoceptors, while (R)-M-1 was a weak antagonist at histamine H1 receptors (pKB = 6.49) [2].

Serum concentration is achieved in 2-4 hours. The half-life of tetracycline is 8.5 hours and its volume of distribution is 1.3 l/kg. Tetracycline is 35%-50% bound to plasma proteins.

Allergic rhinitis (AR) is an inflammatory condition which affects the membrane lining of the nose; causing it to become sensitive to allergens such as pollen, dust and animal dander. During AR, antigens bind with immunoglobulin E (IgE) to form an antigen-antibody complex which then attach themselves to the surface of nasal mast cells; inducing a cascade of cellular events leading to mast cell degranulation and the release of histamine via exocytosis. The release of histamine and other inflammatory mediators on blood vessel and nerve endings results in the symptoms of AR such as sneezing, itching and nasal discharge (rhinorrhoea). AR which occurs the same time every year is known as seasonal AR or more commonly known as “hay fever”. Avoiding causative allergens is essential in the management of the symptoms of AR; however, drug treatment is used to alleviate and control its symptoms. This evaluation will focus on the use of H1 anti-histamines, corticosteroids and IgE therapy in the treatment and management of seasonal AR. (ARIA, 2008)

The APC’s, when activated, migrate to the lymph nodes and interact with T and B cells to initiate the immune response. Antigens gets broken down to peptide fragments and presented on the cell surface by major histocompatibility complex 2 molecules (MHC-II) to T cell receptors. For this reaction to be significant, a co-stimulatory signal is also needed to increase interleukin-2 (IL-2) production. IL-2 is a T cell growth factor that is necessary for T cell activation. When T cells are activated the Th2 cytokines are produced. In particular, IL-4 causes CD4+ cells to adopt Th2 properties and stimulates B and T cell proliferation, along with the upregulation of MHC-II expression. IL-4 also causes B cells to undergo class switching and produce IgE that is specific to the allergen. The IgE binds to the Fc receptors on mast cells and basophils and upon re-exposure to the allergen, mediators, mainly histamine, leukotrienes, and cytokines, are released from preformed granules in the cell.4 Another cytokine, IL-5, activates eosinophils and has a stimulatory role on B cell growth. Eosinophils, along with neutrophils, basophils, T cells, and macrophages produce more cytokines and inflammatory mediators, which keeps the inflammatory response active. This is known as the late phase of an allergic reaction, which is responsible for the persistent chronic symptoms of allergies. Chronic symptoms include swelling of the nasal

Allergic rhinitis is started by an allergic immune response to inhaled allergens. Atopic people have a genetic predisposition to become sensitised to harmless allergens. Dendritic cells which act as antigen-presenting cells capture the allergen and present allergenic peptide to T lymphocytes in lymph nodes. CD4+ T cells play an important role in starting and orchestration of the allergic immune response by secretion of cytokines such as interleukins 4, 5, 10, and 13. Interleukin 4 is fundamental cytokine in driving sensitisation to allergens. Interleukin 4 stimulatesthe IgE switch in B lymphocytes. After releasing of IgE into the bloodstream it binds to receptors on the surface of mast cells and basophils. When the patient exposure to the allergen and the allergen reach nasal mucosa of sensitised individuals, they bind allergen-specific IgE on the surface of mast cells, resulting in release of inflammatory mediators such as histamine.

The main function of Epinephrine is to prepare the body to flee or fight back and also affects a wide range of physical tissues, such as the muscles, circulatory system, and lungs. (http://www.peanutallergy.com/articles/peanut-allergy/function-of-epinephrine)

The physiological function of each receptor subtype has not been established and is currently the subject of intensive investigation (1).

In humans the highest histamine concentrations are found in the skin, lung and stomach, with smaller amounts in the brain and heart, histamine is made and stored within white blood cells. When the immune system is activated in response to foreign material entering the body, histamine is the first defense chemical or correctly inflammatory mediator, released in the process called inflammation i.e. the clinical evidence that the immune system is responding (Joneja and Carmona,