Agricultural Genetic Engineering Essay

Genetic engineering is the deliberate modification of the characteristics of an organism by manipulating its genetic material, otherwise known as DNA. Since biochemists Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer pioneered genetic engineering in 1973, the process has grown to have numerous applications such as medicine production, for example insulin (Mckinley). However, a main topic of concern is the application of genetic engineering on foods that we eat everyday. By modifying the genetic "blueprint" of crops, it is possible to improve many aspects of agriculture. But with any sort of scientific discovery that allows humans to act as Mother Nature, genetically modifying organisms has been a very controversial topic. Yet our society continues to grow, and the need for the benefits of genetically modified foods continues to grow. Genetically modifying foods should be permitted in our society because it allows larger yields of crops to be produced, produces foods with higher nutritional values, and reduces our global ecological footprint.

The companies are tricking farmers into thinking that their seeds are better for the environment, when really they are not. “Toxins from Bt seeds are released through the roots and can last in the soil for at least 234 days”. The main reason why DDT in soil lasts so long is because it “binds strongly to soil particles” (Deepak). These toxins can be leached down into the groundwater, contaminating water sources. Bt toxin can also be absorbed through other plants roots and then be eaten by animals, poisoning them. Farmers claim that they save money by using Bt seeds because they do not use pesticides, but the difference in cost is made up by the cost of the seeds: “Thompson’s soybean and corn yields are well above county average and even as the US government continues to bail out indebted farmers, Thompson is making money. He profits from both his healthy soil and crops, and from the fact that his “input” costs for chemical fertilizer, pesticides, and so forth-are almost nil” (Halweil). Thompson is an organic farmer who does not use many pesticides and makes a profit very close to what a typical farmer makes. Although Bt seeds supposedly use less pesticides, they still release toxic chemicals into the ground which is extremely harmful to the soil.

Scientists continue to find new ways to insert genes for specific traits into plant and animal DNA. A field of promise—and a subject of debate—genetic engineering is changing the food we eat and the world we live in.

Imagine going to the grocery store and seeing a seedless watermelon, but it is not the typical oval, it is square. Down the produce aisle, there are sweet, juicy strawberries; however, there is a warning label that says, “Do not consume if you have a nut allergy.” The world today is moving forward in the way that society produces our wholefoods. Genetic engineering, bioengineering, or biotechnology is the process of inserting the genetics of different plants and organisms into other plants or organisms to create new, more efficient DNA. However, is it truly beneficial to modify the world’s natural foods? The use of genetic engineering can disrupt the ecosystems that have taken billions of years to develop. Many years of research and work have gone into the subject of genetically modified foods; however, this new food trend could create or enhance food related illnesses and health problems, interfere with nature’s environs, and could even cause specific ethical problems for individuals that practice different faith. People should be aware of genetic engineering, how it works, and how it affects their lives.

Genetically modified crops are an incredibly important issue that everyone should be aware of since it is something we are exposed to at a daily basis. Genetically modified crops also known as GM crops or Biotech crops has been one of the most heated debates of issues within our society. The debate about the safety, concerns and disadvantages of GM crops have raged since the mid 1990 's but this is due to the lack of knowledge of the general public. Many people are unaware of what the GM crops actually are and what they offer. Genetically modified crops are plants that are used in the agriculture and have been modified to initiate a new trait to plants that does not happen naturally in the species. These plants are modified using genetic engineering techniques to enhance desired traits. GM crops are made when genes of commercial interest are transferred from one organism to another.() There are many methods used for the production of GM crops but the two primary used for plant insertion are gene guns and agrobacterium tumefaciens. There are also three types of modifications which are transgenic, cisgenic, and subgenic plants. However, there are a number of issues that surround this controversial topic such as environmental, health, and economic concerns. Even though there are some worrying facts about GM crops people don 't realize the advantages or the ways it has helped humans as well as animals. There are many reasons why GM crops are proven

Biotechnology is the application of scientific techniques and exploitation of biological processes used to improve and modify animals, plants and microorganisms to enhance their value through genetic manipulation. Over time, advances in the field of molecular biology has allowed scientists to take a particular gene from any organism, including, bacteria, viruses, plants or animals, and introduce those genes into another organism. An organism transformed using genetic engineering techniques is known as transgenic organism (Independent learning center, 2012). This paper discusses the positive and negative effects of genetically engineered organisms in agricultural applications and the Canadian regulation or legislation that relates to this issue.

GMOs had largely been out of the public view for most of their brief history as the concept of genetically altered life forms stayed in laboratories. There was no concern over the release of edited genomes or the consumption of unnatural foods. In the article “History of GMOs” by Annette McDermott, the Food and Drug Administration is recorded as having approved the first GMO for human use, specifically a diabetic medicine called Humulin in 1987. This opened a floodgate for pharmaceutical and later agricultural companies to develop genetically modified products and seek their approval from the government. The fact that the US government would allow these modified products into the marketplace was a temptation that many companies utilized. The year 1994 would see the introduction of the first approved GMO vegetable to arrive on supermarket shelves: the Flavr Savr tomato was genetically engineered to last longer on store shelves and stay ripe longer, as explained in “History of GMOs” by Annette McDermott. With the transgenic tomato came the age of widespread GMO food use. Corn, soybeans, cotton, and tomatoes are among the most heavily modified crops. In the book “Genetically Engineered Food: A Self-Defense Guide for Consumers” by Ronnie Cummins and Ben Lilliston, it states an estimated “81% of U.S. soybeans, 40 of U.S. corn, 73% of U.S. cotton, [and] over 50% of the U.S. and Canadian canola crop” (pg. 5) is genetically modified. While most of this

directly on individual needs and the honesty of scientists and lawmakers. The best interest of the people is emphasized, in response to the fact that all the risks of GMOs are not yet known. Even though understanding potential risks is of chief importance to human health, GMO proponents make it clear that there is more to GMOs then their potential risks. For example, a newly created genetically altered rice is “outperforming its natural kind—given less moisture, the non- engineered rice browns and wilts, but the new plant survives (Ostrander, “Can GMOs Help…?”)”. The goal of GMO creation is not to be secretive about various risks, but it is to create products that are better than their originals. Monsanto, the prime inventor and activist of GMOs, states his products are “agricultural, including Roundup, an herbicide that the company invented in 1970. Its premier products, among the most common GM crops on the market, are “Round-up Ready”—varieties of soybeans, corn, alfalfa, cotton, canola and sugar beets whose DNA has been modified to keep them from dying when doused with Roundup (Ostrander, “Can GMOs Help…?”)”. Not only are the products shaped to generate more food in a short span of time, but they are crafted with healthful ingredients that can benefit consumers. Monsanto and other GMOs proponents do not want

farming. Monsanto is trying to make their products available to farmers all around the world.

By inserting desired genes into bacterial plasmids and allowing plant cells to take up the foreign DNA, numerous plant species now have the ability to survive harsh conditions such as heat and cold, resist pesticides more effectively, yield more plentiful amounts of edible foods, and pass on their desirable genes to viable offspring. Rice, corn, and tomatoes are good examples of plants that have been modified in this way (Byrne). In fact, the U.S. and Canada are the leading producers of these genetically modified foods (see chart below). Now, the question remains if it is ethically and socially acceptable to implement a similar kind of practice to modify human beings so that they will, in turn, possess the most desired traits and be able to pass them on from generation to generation.

However, these risks are purely speculative: 81 separate studies costing approximately $65 million have been conducted by the European Commission alone and have shown no evidence of any risk linked to GM foods (1). Indeed, the U.S. has concluded that the risk of GM crops is minimal. As a result, in the U.S., genetically altered crops accounted for 93% of planted soybeans and cotton and 86% of corn in 2009. (2). Considering the success and benefits of GM crops in America, developing countries have followed suit. In 2009, India planted 84,000 square kilometers of genetically modified cotton, and Brazil planted 214,000 square kilometers of GM soybeans, a 26% increase from the year before (3). Like the U.S., these countries conducted a risk-benefit analysis and concluded that the economic, health, and food surplus benefits of GM crops offset the unproven risks (4). Thus, agricultural biotechnology is being implemented in farming techniques throughout the world.

    The development of recombinant DNA techniques have allowed desired genes to be inserted into a plant genomes resulting in plants that are totally different to the parent plant. The first genetically modified plant-antibiotic resistant tobacco and petunias-were produced in 1983, but it was until 1994 that US markets saw the first genetically modified species of tomato, approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Since then, several transgenic crops have received FDA

Many varieties of genetically engineered crops have been designed to decrease the need for chemicals, particularly pesticides. Herbicide-tolerant varieties are among the most widely used type of genetically-modified crop, which enables farmers to use a single herbicide to eradicate weeds rather than rely on a cocktail of pesticides and herbicides. Eliminating weeds in this fashion also decreases the need for soil tillage, which can negatively impact soil ecology. (Ford,

Instead of transferring large blocks of genes from donor plant to recipient, small isolated blocks of genes are put into the plant chromosome through biolistics, vectors, or protoplast transformation (Horsch 1993). Biolistics is a technique that shoots the gene block into the potential host cell. In order for the process to succeed, the microscopic particles and DNA must enter the cell nuclei and combine with the plant chromosome. Biolistics is commonly used but has a slight failure risk since the breeder has little control over the destination of the gene block (Mooney & Bernardi 1990). Bacteria or viruses can also carry the gene blocks into a new cell. Common vectors in gene transfer between plants are Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Agrobacterium rhizogenes. In the soil, the bacteria will infect the plants with their own plasmid, transferring the desired gene that was placed in the bacteria's DNA. Vector gene transfer is a preferred method of transformation since this modification already occurs naturally in the environment (Rudolph & McIntire 1996). Last is protoplast transformation, which uses enzymes to dissolve the cellulose in the plant wall that leaves a protoplast. Once a specific gene block is added to the protoplast, the cell wall will re-grow into a transgenic plant.

The coding region of the gene is usually fused to a promoter, most commonly used is the 35S promoter from cauliflower mosaic virus (CMV), in order to promote higher expression levels. (Snow et. al, 1997) The popular method for genetic engineering of crop plants is natural gene transfer via an Agrobacterium tumefaciens vector, a bacterium normally found in soils. The transfer-DNA (T-DNA) vector is made by inserting the desired gene fragment in between specific 25bp repeat domains in the bacterium. The vector is then inserted into the Agrobacterium and "the virulence gene products of Agrobacterium actively recognize, excise, transport, and integrate the T-DNA region into the host plant genomes." (Conner et. al, 1999) The amount of DNA transferred is only about 10kb and the nature of the gene is usually well understood. The expression of the gene introduced can also be controlled by adding additional sequences that might allow the gene to be constitutively expressed, expressed only in certain cell types, or expressed as a result of different environmental changes. This method of gene transfer, however, will only work for the natural host range of the bacterium and therefore other methods are used for additional crop plants. Such methods are uptake of naked DNA by electroporation or particle gun bombardment. The use of genetic markers, as mentioned previously, allows for the preferential growth of cultures that contain the new genetic