Antibiotic Resistance Through Pathogens

Antibiotic resistance is a phenomenon in which germs evolve to be able to resist the action of drugs. This causes illnesses that were once easily curable with antibiotics to become dangerous infections, requiring alternative medications or higher doses. With millions of deaths increasing every year, antibiotic resistance has become one of the world's most pressing public health problems. This essay will explain the key causes of the emergence of resistant bacteria, including antibiotic misuse, inappropriate prescribing and availability of few new antibiotics, and outline relevant effects of antibiotic resistance.

Antibiotic resistance happens when bacteria come into contact with an antibiotic over and over again.

The use of the healthcare system as a whole is largely determined by the cost incurred by the patient, as well as insurance companies within the healthcare system. As for combating the growth of antibiotic resistance, it might be beneficial to increase the cost of antibiotics so that they are used only when clinically appropriate. This, however, would lead to a decrease in access to patients who might actually need these forms of treatment and who are unable to afford them. Additionally, increasing the cost of treatment options may cause there to be a delay or abandonment of therapy. While neither of these options may be ideal to patients, and even the healthcare system as a whole, the consideration of their use may aid in lowering the prevalence of antibiotic resistance.

Mutations and genetic evolutions in the bacteria are two ways resistance is growing. These mutations and genetic evolutions get passed down to the next generation, which makes it difficult for scientists to create antibiotics that work each specific strain of bacteria ("Facts about Antibiotic Resistance" 2016). Many resistant antibiotics have targeted the cells by inhibiting the enzymes that usually stop the spread of the bacteria (Diekema 2016). Scientists need to look into preventing these enzymes from getting blocked so the antibiotics can stop the replicating

A drug-resistant organism may be introduced into a health care facility with the admission of a patient who is infected with or who has been colonized by such a strain. Alternatively, antimicrobial resistance may emerge in bacteria as a response to selective antibiotic pressure, or a resistant organism may spread from person to person. Often, a combination of these factors may be involved in the emergence and transmission of antimicrobial resistance within a health care facility (Mulvey M. and Simor A., 2009).while according to Toltzis P., (2003) stated that, the role of antibiotic exposure on the acquisition of antibiotic resistant bacteria in the intensive care nursery is difficult to calculate given the covariance of such exposure to other

Antibiotic resistance had been a crisis in the United States for many years now. According to the CDC, “up to 50% of the time, antibiotics are not optimally prescribed, often done so when not needed, [or with] incorrect dosing or duration” (CDC). More and more bacteria are becoming antibiotic resistant mostly due to incorrect amount and length of dosage, while sometimes, even the actual antibiotic is incorrectly given to the patient. Because of this, many strains of bacteria had become resistant to these antibiotics and thus, have infected more and more

Once bacteria is exposed to an antibiotic, the sensitive bacteria are killed, but sometimes not all the bacteria are killed and those colonies that survive, are left to multiply. Bacteria can become resistant through many mechanisms, it depends on the bacteria. Some bacteria fight the drugs and push them out, others alter the attack site which makes the antibiotic unable to harm the bacteria in a way it did before. The attack site is altered when the bacteria has a stronger defense than the antibiotic has (Rice, 2006). If repeatedly exposed to antibiotics, this process allows selective pressure to occur which makes it more likely for the bacteria to mutate. Selective pressure is a process the bacteria take to become immune. Sometimes, however,

In this paper, I address some major ethical issues associated with the ineffective use of Antibiotics which contributes to Antimicrobial resistance (AMR), as Antimicrobial resistance is a direct consequence of not considering several bioethical factors associated with proper use of antibiotics since its advent. The Antimicrobial resistance is a result of ceaseless selection pressure over bacterial population during several generations from human application of antibiotics through overuse, underuse and misuse. In the first section, I have discussed why AMR currently has become one of the major public health concerns and the impacts of the AMR on global public health should not merely be viewed as a technical or medical problem but as a distinct

Evolution is a gradual process in which something changes into a different and usually more complex or better form. Charles Darwin proposed a theory, now called the Theory of Evolution, stating that animals differentiated into species when the survivors of a changing environment were able to pass their genetic traits to their offspring. The theory of evolution is a scientific theory that can be tested by observations and application of the scientific method. Support for the theory of evolution is based on fossil evidence that has accumulated throughout the geologic history of the Earth. The emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria is a contemporary example of the adaptation of life-forms in response to their environment.

It occurs when bacteria change in some way that reduces or eliminates the effectiveness of drugs, chemicals, or other agents designed to cure or prevent infections. The antibiotic action is an environmental pressure; those bacteria which have a transformation allowing them to survive will live on to reproduce. After the bacteria gets into the host then the antibiotic will then pass this trait to their offspring, which will be a fully resistant generation to the next generation.

Ceftazidime is a third generation cephalosporin antibiotic used to treat a number of bacterial infections, particularly Pseudomonas and other Gram negatives, and its activity relies on binding of essential penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) (1). Despite its effectiveness against certain bacteria, there have been reports of rapidly increasing incidences of antibacterial resistance to ceftazidime caused by extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Enterobacteriaceae (2). Recently, a new beta-lactam/beta-lactamase inhibitor combination, ceftazidime-avibactam (AVYCAZ) has shown to have “in vitro activity against Enterobacteriaceae in the presence of some beta-lactamases and extended-spectrum beta-lactamases” and is FDA-approved for treating complicated intra-abdominal infections as well as complicated urinary tract infections (1). Due to the resistance frequency of inpatient Enterobacteriaceae isolates at the University of Washington Medical Center (4), susceptibility testing of Ceftazidime and Ceftazidime-Avibactam are crucial to ensure antibiotic treatment efficacy and to take action to reduce the spread of multi-drug resistant bacteria in a hospital setting.

John Wesley is a 56 year old man who apart from taking warfarin for his chronic atrial fibrillation is not on any other medication. His International Normalised Ratio (INR) is monitored regularly so that it is around 2.5 (range 2.06-2.8). John goes to his GP with a lower urinary tract infection and is prescribed a 7 day course of cefixime, a 3rd generation cephalosporin. His GP tells John that he will need to come in the following week for a blood test for his INR.

The clinical question that guides the search for a quantitative article is: In hospitalized adults, does implementation of prevention control measures decrease antibiotic resistance?

Using antibiotics to treat infectious diseases as a result of bacteria has added 20 years to our lifespan, but the rapid emergence of antibiotic resistance is hindering their effectiveness. Cutting-edge antibiotics are required, but they have not been developed in the last 25 years (WHO, 2016). One class of antibiotics are beta-lactams, which are sub-divided into four different groups of antimicrobial agents, as shown in Figure 1.

Antibiotic Resistance (ABR) is a worldwide threat that is affecting humans, animals, and the environment in the United States and around the world. ABR occurs when antibiotics have lost their power to kill bad bacteria. Therefore, the bacteria become resistant to therapeutic antibiotics resulting in uncured illnesses. Barlam and Gupta, authors of the article “Antibiotic Resistance Spreads Internationally Across Borders,” state that “ABR develops when bacteria are exposed to antibiotics either during treatments in humans or animals through environmental sources contaminated with antibiotic residues” (12). People and animals will always be connected one way or another through the environment. The spread of ABR happens through direct contact with an infected person or animal, through contact or consumption of meat or produce contaminated with ABR bacteria, or simply through the environment (12). The spreading issue of ABR has been a serious concern for an extensive amount of time that has influenced the environment in a negative way. Balasegaram et al., authors of “The Global Innovation Model for Antibiotics Needs Reinvention,” state that infections are becoming more difficult to treat due to the lack of research, various human activities, and development of new antibiotics that can aid bacterial resistance (22). It’s time for society to have a better understanding of the risks ABR has before it’s too late. ABR is becoming a severely growing problem with the food, soil, and