Avian Paramyxovirus

The respiratory syncytial pathogen is a non-segmented negative -sense single stranded RNA virus that falls under the paramyxoviridae family. The virus is comprised of 10 genes the encode 11 proteins and is divided into two subtypes A and B, which further divide into multiple genotypes. Genetic studies have tried

Hendra virus (originally called "Equine morbillivirus" was discovered in September 1994 when it caused the deaths of thirteen horses, and a trainer at a training complex in Hendra, a suburb of Brisbane in Queensland, Australia.[12]

Once there was a virus named Birdie. This virus was a Bird Flu, or Avian Influenza, virus of the subtype H5N1, the first strain of Avian Influenza having the ability to infect humans (Normandin and Solan). Birdie looked like a microscopic pomander, a fragrant orange with cloves stuck in it. Inside, she had eight pieces of single stranded ribonucleic acid or ssRNA. Birdie was deadly to humans, but was not able to spread from one human to another. She could only spread from birds to humans ("Bird Flu"). Birdie started out inside a chicken named Cluck, where she was formed. A little while later, Cluck's farmer Mark, sold his Cluck, to Joe, another poultry farmer because Mark did not realize that Cluck had H5N1. After a few months of Cluck living

The emergence to zoonosis can be brought on by many factors, in particular, social and cultural habits, changes in pathogen, human and animal demography, and environmental changes or in this case changes in farming practices (Who.int, 2015). As the population of humans continue to expand farmers are spreading in to bat colony territory. Exposure to more of these colonies is bringing about a greater chance of exposure to the Hendra Virus. In early 1996 just two years after the first outbreak of Hendra virus, surveys were conducted to find the reservoir hosts in nature (abcrc.org.au, 2015). After broader investigations antibodies to the Hendra Virus were found in all four types of main land flying fox pteropid species in Australia (abcrc.org.au, 2015). As a natural host the flying foxes do not experience any illness related with the virus. So how was it possible for the bats to transmit the virus to the horses? A hypothesis arose that the infectious outbreaks usually fell within the birthing period of the flying foxes (News-Medical.net, 2009). This was proven true and with sample from bats the Hendra virus antibodies were isolated primarily from the foetal liver, uterine fluid, and foetal lung in 2000 (Microbewiki.kenyon.edu, 2009) .It is now believed that horses contract the virus once they have consumed feed or water contaminated with these reproductive

Feline panleukopenia virus (FPV) belongs to the Protopavovirus genus of the Parvoviridae family of single stranded DNA viruses (Garigliany). FPV is highly stable in the environment and endemic in many cat populations specifically in kittens (Jakel). The replication of the parvovirus genome occurs in the nucleus of the cell which requires the cell to be in the S-phase of the cell cycle. This is because this genome relies on the host's cell mechanism to form intermediates of double-stranded DNA, as a result, this limits the tropism or direction of FPV to highly dividing cells found in the intestine, bone marrow or lymphoid tissues (Garigliany). And despite the fact that the Purkinje cells are already in the post-mitotic development stage, viral proteins

Immunofluorescent assays or reverse transcriptase on smears of tissues such as tracheal or vaginal epithelium or other matters such as the buffy coat of blood and urine sediment

Paramyxovirus is one of a group of RNA viruses that are predominantly responsible for acute respiratory diseases and are usually transmitted by airborne droplets. The paramyxoviruses include the agents of mumps, measles, RSV, Newcastle disease, and parainfluenza.

Sheeppox virus (SPPV), goatpox virus (GTPV) are large double standard DNA viruses that belongs to the genus Capripoxvirus of subfamily Chordopoxvirinae, within the Poxviridae family (Diallo and Viljoen, 2007; Matthews REF, 1982). Capripoxvirus (CaPV) causes highly contagious and economically important disease of goats and sheep with mortality reaching up to 100% in naïve animals (Bhanuprakash et al., 2006). The genome of Capripoxvirus contains a central coding region surrounded by two identical inverted terminal repeats (ITR) with a genome size of ~150 kbp with 147 putative open reading frames. The A+T nucleotide content of genome is ~75% (Tulman et al., 2002). The identity between genomes of SPPV and GTPV is 96% over their entire length. The

While an earlier study suggested the evolution of Polintons from a virus [89], more recently, Polintons were hypothesized to have evolved from bacteriophages to become the first eukaryotic DNA viruses from which most of the extant NCLDVs have evolved [86]. Mavirus, a virophage of the Cafeteria roenbergensis virus (CroV) that infects the marine flagellate C. roenbergensis, possess terminal inverted repeats that are characteristic of Polintons and other transposons [61], and can integrate at multiple sites within the host (C. roenbergenesis) genome and get reactivated in a CroV-infection dependent manner [90]. Furthermore, Polintons are thought to be one of the major components of the complex genetic network that include NCLDVs,

Ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) and other waterfowl are the natural reservoir of Influenza A virus (IAV) (Webster et al. 1992). IAV may cross the species barrier from the reservoir species causing sporadic infections in other avian or mammalian species (Webster et al. 1995). These infections impose a large burden on human and animal health worldwide leading to economic losses; In humans, in 2008, 90 million new influenza infections resulted in an estimated 28000- 115000 deaths worldwide (Nair et al. 2011), in birds, in 1999, Italy experienced a HPAI epidemic caused by an H7N1 virus subtype. In total 16 million birds were culled and the estimated loss was about € 507 million, with € 112 million in direct losses and € 395 million in consequential losses (Sartore et al. 2010). Ducks often display little to no disease symptoms after IAV infection. They stimulate a robust innate immune response when infected with HPAI by up-regulating many innate immune genes (Vanderven et al. 2012). Therefore, characterization of innate immune genes of ducks, particularly the genes that are upregulated during IAV infection, might give insight into the relationship between IAV and the innate immune response of ducks, which will help us to control the virus.

As already mentioned, the H5.N1 is a subtype of an influenza A type. This type consists of RNA. This RNA names as HA and NA. The HA is glycoproteins found on the surface of the virus. This special protein helps the virus to bind to the host cell. While NA is glycosylated enzyme sits on the surface as well. It helps to release the virus from the host cell. In reality, the least pathogenic virus is H5.N1 or (LPAI H5N1), is commonly happening in wild birds for example, in 1983 it is reported that the virus being carried by the ring-billed gulls in Pennsylvania, ( Bird flu (H5.N1) Genetic in news-medical). The virus itself cannot be pathogenic unless some changes occur, which means new progeny. When the RNA of two viruses enters a combination process in the host cell.

Mumps is an enveloped single stranded, non-segmented, negative-sense RNA virus belonging to the Paramyxoviridae family. The Mump virus genome is a 15.3-kb RNA with seven contiguous transcription units, encoding the nucleocapsid-associated protein (NP), V protein (V)/phosphoprotein (P), matrix (M) protein, fusion (F) protein, small hydrophobic (SH) protein, hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) protein, and large (L) protein (Choi, 2010).

MERS-CoV is a coronavirus of the subgenus known as the betacoronaviruses. It is an enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA species that infects the respiratory tract and kidney epithelium of both humans and animals3. This virus falls under the subgroup of betacoronaviruses known as lineage C which, up until this novel virus was identified, included isolates from bats. Indeed, the coronaviruses BtCoV-HKU4 and BtCoV-HKU5, which were only

A number of studies have supported the theory that the virus had originally occurred in animals previous to human infections.5 The MERs-CoV virus is a type of coronavirus that has been known for infecting both birds and many species of mammals. These types of infections are commonly referred to as zoonotic diseases because the pathogens are able to be transferred from animals to humans. Zoonosis can happen with or without a vector in order to spread the infection. Although the exact origin of the MERs-CoV infections is unknown, there has been convincing research performed that has found related types of coronaviruses in bats and camels. According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention, the coronavirus is found in multiple species and can cause respiratory illness and gastrointestinal upset.

Newcastle Disease Virus is an infectious disease of poultry and fowl caused by the virus, ‘Paramyxovirus’ serotype 1 (Foster and Smith, 2017a); (Alexander, 2000). The severity of this virus depends on the susceptibility of the host and how virulent the virus is. Chickens