Bacteriophage T4

When we hear the word virus, we usually think of something that makes us sick. A virus is an ultramicroscopic infectious organism that, having no independent metabolic activity, can replicate only within a cell of another host organism. A virus consists of a core of nucleic acid, either RNA or DNA, surrounded by a coating of antigenic protein and sometimes a lipid layer surrounds it as well. The viral genome provides the genetic code for replication, and the host cell provides the necessary energy and raw materials. To fight viruses, we use vaccines. While some may infect a broad range, other viruses can only infect certain kinds of cells. Vaccines are made of inactive, dead or weakened virus cells or protein antigens that can no longer infect

Condoms are categories into two type one is male type condom and one is female type condom. Male type condom can by many material such as latex, plastic and animal membrane. As the function is just to act as a wrapper to stop the semen enter to the vagina. The advantages are easy to use and getting protection against sexually infection. The disadvantage is it may tear or break without improper use. For female condom, it is an internal use condom as the condom needed to put inside the vagina with a device to hold the place. The advantage is protected form HIV infection and disadvantage is it very hard to put the condom correctly. For barrier birth control method also have spermicide, diaphragm, and sterilization. Spermicide is a gel type barrier for birth control, as it available in several forms for personal convenience and disadvantage is it may be difficult to use because it have to apply immediately before intercourse. Then, diaphragm is a domed-shape rubber cup that for female user only and there is having the spermicidal jelly inside the dome. The jelly is to kill the sperm cells. The advantage is it can be keep for two or three months if clean and stored properly and disadvantage is required to go to clinic or physician for the fitting. Sterilization is the way that can be done by male or female as it only needed to cut the tube lead to the scrotum and join to urethra (vasectomy), as

Viruses are microscopic particles that invade and take over both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. They consist of two structures, which are the nucleic acid and capsid. The nucleic acid contains all genetic material in the form of DNA or RNA, and is enclosed in the capsid, which is the protein coating that helps the virus attach to and penetrate the host cell. In some cases, certain viruses have a membrane surrounding the capsid, called an envelope. This structure allows viruses to become more stealthy and protected. There are two cycles in which a virus can go into: lytic and lysogenic. The lytic cycle consists of the virus attaching to a cell, injecting its DNA, and creating more viruses, which proceed to destroy the host. On the other hand, the lysogenic cycle includes the virus attaching to the cell, injecting its DNA, which combines with the cell’s DNA in order for it to become provirus. Then, the provirus DNA may eventually switch to the lytic cycle and destroy the host.

Viruses are coated genetic material that invade cells and use the cell's apparatus for reproduction.

“Some men and/or women have allergic reactions to the rubber used to make latex condoms” (Condoms).

A virus is a small capsule that contains DNA or RNA, viruses, unlike bacteria are not self sufficient and need a host in

The virus fuses with the cell’s plasma membrane. The capsid proteins are removed, releasing the viral proteins and RNA. Reverse transcriptase catalyzes the synthesis of a DNA strand complementary to the viral RNA. Reverse transcriptase catalyzes the synthesis of a second DNA strand complementary to the first. The double-stranded DNA is incorporated as a provirus into the cell’s DNA. Proviral genes are transcribed into RNA molecules, which serve as genomes for the next viral generation and as mRNAs for translation into viral proteins. The viral proteins include capsid proteins and reverse transcriptase (made in the cytosol) and envelope glycoproteins (made in the ER). Vesicles transport the glycoproteins from the ER to the cell’s plasma membrane. Capsids are assembled around viral genomes and reverse transcriptase molecules. New viruses bud off from the host cell.

Some may ask but condoms are latex and I’m allergic to latex, what should I do? There is to be no worries, condoms are also made with other material for people who are allergic to latex, therefore there is no excuse for not protecting yourself. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention states “Laboratory studies have demonstrated that latex condoms provide an essentially impermeable barrier to particles the size of STD pathogens. ("Centers for Disease Control and Prevention") Thus aiding in the reason why condoms are so important, to maintain healthy sex life’s.

The T-Even bacteriophage is a virus that attacks E. Coli bacteria. The basic function for all viruses is alike. Viruses use this function to hijack cells and inject their own genetic information to reproduce themselves. One cell alone can reproduce hundreds of viruses. This particular virus is good for you, because it kills off the E Coli. infection, which means this is a medical virus that can be used to treat illnesses.

This intricate virus contains many structures that allow it to survive and be pathogenic. Constructed by lipids, the cells

Transduction is a method of transferring genes among bacteria via virus particles, which can be divided into two categories known as generalized and specialized transduction. During the lytic cycle, which quickly replicates phages and eventually releases them, ultimately killing the host cell, generalized transduction occurs. In generalized transduction, bacterial DNA is transferred from one cell to another by means of a bacteriophage. The phage first attaches to the bacterial host cell, and releases its nucleic acid in to the host cell, where host DNA is broken down. Phage protein coats (capsids) are formed in the cell, containing not only phage DNA, but mistakenly the bacterial host cells DNA as well. After the newly formed phages are released, the bacterial DNA

The protective capsid helps the virus escape detection and destruction during the invasion of the host. When the virus reaches the target cell, biochemical reactions between the capsid and cell wall allow the virus to latch on and inject its genome into the cell’s interior. Once inside, the viral genetic material insinuates itself into the host’s DNA or RNA. In an efficient feat of natural bioengineering, the host cell’s genetic machinery now does the rest of the work for the virus. The cell, which had already been making copies of its own genome, now also replicates that of the virus. Coded within the viral material is the blueprint for making more copies of the viral genome. Further instructions command the production of capsids and directions for assembly of new viruses. After the host cell becomes engorged with viruses, it explodes, sending the new

The HIV-1 virion is approximately 120 nm in diameter, roughly spherical, and is composed of two copies of a single stranded positive sense RNA enclosed by a capsid (24). The HIV-1 genome is less than 10 kb and encodes for more than nine different gene products. It encodes for 3 major structural protein genes: gag (group-specific antigen), pol (DNA polymerase), and env (Envelope), which code for major structural proteins and essential enzymes. Gag generates the mature Gag protein matrix (MA or p17), capsid (CA or p24), nucleocapsid (NC or p7), and p6, which encompass proteins for the basic infrastructure of the virus such as the inner core of the viral particle (25). Pol encodes for reverse transcriptase (RT), which enables the virus to reproduce, integrase (IN), which is necessary to integrate the viral double stranded DNA into the host genome, RNAse H, and HIV protease, which are all encapsulated in the core of the inner particle formed by the viral capsid protein p24 (25). Env encodes for glycoproteins of the outer membrane such as outer gp120 (which enables the virus to attach and fuse to cells of the host), and transmembrane gp41 that anchors the glycoprotein complex to the surface of the virion (25). Between the core and the envelope is the HIV matrix proteins which are composed of the viral protein p17 (23). HIV-1 also encodes for proteins with important regulatory elements (tat (Trans-Activator of Transcription) and rev

Four Seaons were the first condom manufacturer in the world to release a coloured, dotted condom, and also the first to produce a condom that adjusts to the pH inside a vagina. Constant innovation within the company led to the release of the thinnest condom ever, Four Seasons Naked 0.02, only 0.02 mm thickness. In 1997, Four Seasons developed a breakthrough condom made from special polyurethane material; a form of plastic which is thinner, twice as strong as latex and is not damaged by oil-based lubricants. The condom was an outcome of over 25 years of material research Four Seasons, 2013).

Other prevention techniques are the female controlled barrier methods such as spermicides, diaphragms, and cervical caps, but these prevention methods are unproven as HIV barrier. A top priority in basic research is to produce female-controlled HIV barriers (Lawson et al, 1999: 49). Female condoms have been seen by some as a female-controlled of contraception and STD prevention that can be used without the consent of the male