Biology: What are Mycotoxins

Harvesting during the 1500s-1600s was an important source for villagers to get their own food. However, in the autumn of 1691, the Salem village experienced extreme weather conditions such as high temperatures and humidity. These conditions failed to make crops and forced the villagers to use rye to make their bread. A well-known Salem farmer named Thomas Putnam supplied much of the colony’s rye flour and donated regularly to the Samuel Parris household, who happened to be Elizabeth Parris’ father (Woolf, 2000). Because of the lack of scientific knowledge of bacteria and diseases, mycotoxin allowed funguses to grow on plants. Mycotoxin is a toxic

Foodborne illness, or food poisoning, happens everyday in the U.S. and it is estimated that 48 million people are affected by it every year. Of these 48 million, 128,000 end up in the hospital and 3000 of them die from foodborne pathogens (Tucker, 2014). Foodborne illnesses can be caused by biological, chemical, or physical contaminants. The biological contaminants consist of bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi. Chemical contaminants are pesticides, cleaning supplies, and toxic chemicals. Physical contaminations are dirt, glass, wood, splinters, stones, hair, jewelry, and metal shavings (Tucker, 2014). Salmonella, a bacterium, has been the most common reported cause of food poisoning. Salmonella is most commonly exposed to humans through animal feces and it is usually from animals that give us beef, poultry, and dairy products. People who do not wash their hands after being around animals can also transmit salmonella into our food. The symptoms of Salmonella are abdominal cramps, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and fever (Tucker, 2014). The symptoms will usually resolve on their own in healthy people but may become life threatening in those with compromised immune systems. In order to prevent Salmonellosis, raw eggs should be avoided, as well as undercooked meat, shellfish, and unpasteurized milk and juice (Tucker, 2014). It is also important to always practice hand hygiene before handling any uncooked food products. Escherichia Coli, otherwise known as E. coli, is

Public Health Nutrition state, "Antibiotics at subtherapeutic levels, as well as arsenic and other metal compounds, are used in animal feeds to promote growth of the animals in IAP" (Walker, Rhubart-Berg, et. al.). The animals health is promoted and they grow faster. Timothy Landers states, "The potential threat to human health resulting from inappropriate antibiotic use in food animals is significant..." The threat towards the consumer is greater when chemicals are used to promote the animal's health, Furthermore, Consumer Reports presented, "Humans are at risk both due to potential presence of superbugs in meat and poultry, and to the general migration of superbugs into the environment, where they can transmit their genetic immunity to antibiotics to other bacteria, including bacteria that make people sick” (Consumer Reports). Although used for a good cause, superbugs can be created and bred where they can eventually infect the consumer. Even though antibiotics promote the health of the animal it causes a huge health risk to the consumer and

I recently watched the documentary called Food Inc. in which it unveiled the unsanitary conditions of livestock farming. Some livestock farmers use antibiotic-treated feed for their animals because they become very ill. The reason for heavy use of antibiotics is that the lack of sanitation in the tunnel ventilated houses create infections in the animals. (Robert Kenner, 2009) In some cases, antibiotics are administered without the consultation of an accredited veterinarian and for no reason. There has been an increasing fear in the public that antibiotics used in the meat and poultry may have some unexpected negative effects after years of consumption. The Centers for Disease Control and prevention (CDC) have published articles that report on the effects of medicated feed that may create antibiotic resistance in humans. The CDC reports that 3,800 cases of drug-resistant Salmonella Typhi infections occur per year in the United States (CDC, 2013.) Salmonella is a foodborne illness which is also contagious amongst food animals. In recent news, the World Health Organization (2015) has labeled red meat a carcinogen. This recent information fuels the public’s fear that there may be a link to human antibiotic resistance and the overuse of antibiotics in food animals . This type of news has made antibiotics in livestock feed an urgent public health issue. In order to prevent antibiotic resistance and deter this problem the proposed bill known as Senate Bill 770 (SB. 770)

With regards to flesh from mammals and/or fowl, red meat is the term used to refer to meat that is red in color when raw. In contrast to white meat, which tends to be pale before and after cooking, red meat remains red before cooking and does not turn pale when cooked. Despite a shift and increase in the consumption of poultry, which is white meat, red meat is still the largest proportion of meat consumed in the United States (58 percent). Although red meat is an important source of proteins as well as a number of essential nutrients such as zinc and iron, recent reports have associated the consumption of red meat with increased health risks to consumers. This paper will explore the trends in red meat intake in the United States, health risks associated with the consumption of red meat, and thus provide an explanation as to why turning

Americans have gone from eating roughly 234lbs of meat per capita in 980 to 273lbs in 2007 (qtd. Pluhar 2). In the past meat was a side on a dinner plate but as years have gone on, meat has become the main event. The increased demand for meat, as stated above, has caused issues with both the environment and animal welfare. But the demand has also caused issues with the welfare of humans. One of the issues humans face are the pathogens that are released from stressed, immune-compromised, containment-filled food animals (qtd. Pluhar 2). Because of the increased exposure, humans are more susceptible to diseases (qtd. Pluhar 2). Food borne illnesses are a big issue and since the commercialization of farming, the number of cases of food borne illnesses has grown. 76 million people are hit by fouled food annually in the United States. 5,000 of those people die (qtd. Pluhar 2). This is due to the slack regulations in the industry. Studies have been done in low CAFOs regions versus regions with a high concentration of CAFOs. One study showed that people were more likely to develop eczema in the regions with a high concentration of CAFOs. It could be argued that the increase in illnesses and the increase in factory farms could be completely unrelated. But research should be done to provide conclusive evidence showing the relationship between the two. People should be able to eat their food without worrying about

A chronic toxicity investigation by Séralini et al. was a follow-up study of a 90-day feeding study conducted by Monsanto. This study evaluated the effects of a Roundup-tolerant NK603 genetically modified maize cultivated with or without Roundup application and Roundup alone. Roundup is an herbicide containing glysophate developed by Monsanto that is claimed to be nontoxic to birds, fish, and mammals when used according to label directions, and binds to soil tightly, making it unlikely to move to groundwater. The company originally conducted the 90-day feeding study in order to obtain commercial release of this GMO. Monsanto’s results showed that there were differences between the GM and non-GM maize-fed groups in regard to multiple organ function parameters, especially

Hay or forages harvested in areas where poisonous plants are abundant may be contaminated with a high percentage of poisonous plants and when animals are fed contaminated hay, they may be poisoned. Poisonous plants can affect every organ system and can create a problem on animal health and decrease production intensity that we get from our livestock. There are many different types of plant species in and along pastures and range land and sometimes in hay that can cause toxicity problems to livestock. Even with our ever increasing knowledge about poisonous plants and their toxins, poisonings continue to occur on livestock operations due to management error and due to human activities. Poisoning in humans and livestock from toxic plants also continues to be a significant risk, in livestock production and density as well as in human especially to children. It is important to be aware of these plants and their toxicity symptoms. Plant poisonings will undoubtedly increase in wildlife populations also, as humans continue to encroach on their native ranges and interrupt their migratory pathways. There are times such as early spring, during summer or droughts when forage supplies are low and this is when one needs to be most aware of what livestock is

According to the Associated Press, the FDA stated that chicken sold on the markets across USA are fed with inorganic arsenic, a detrimental chemical for human health. It’s given to chicken because it causes quicker weight gain and less feeding. It’s also given to turkeys, hogs, and chickens for enhanced color.

In America, our everyday lives tend to revolve around our food choices. The average consumer veers towards the quick and easy food options. Without prior knowledge, an individual could be consuming contaminated meat products that were produced on a factory farm. Since the 1960’s, factory farming has accounted for over 99% of the meat sold in the United States (Zacharias, 2011). The move towards large, factory farms saves meat industry millions of dollars a day. These farms pose a huge risk to public health and environmental safety. Currently, four major companies produce 85% of all the beef in the United States (Bernice, 2014). It is important to examine how these companies are treating the animals we will ultimately consume. Knowing what these animals are fed, the conditions they are kept in and the effect that these factory farms have on the environment is essential for our health. But are there other options other than Big Ag corporations? Smaller, family owned farms might be the key to better nutrition and a smaller, ecofriendly footprint.

Contaminated poultry is a big concern to society as it poses a serious risk for human health. An estimated 4 million illnesses and 3,000 deaths per year (based on information provided by the United States Department of Agriculture) due to contaminated poultry. This scare has caused all poultry to be vaccinated to prevent harmful pathogens to reach and infect humans.

Enthusiasm for food safety has developed as food supply chains the world over have endured one type of food scare or the other (Kaferstein et al., 1997, Mørkbak et al. 2010). Despite the fact that, the Food Standard Agency (FSA) UK, reported a 19.2% decrease in food borne ailments somewhere around 2000 and 2006, there were still more than 53,000 research facility reported instances of food borne pathogens in the UK in 2005 (FSA, 2007). In 2006, the Agency directed 1,342 examinations of food related occurrences including prominent cases like the salmonella flare-up connected with chocolate, benzene in sodas and the unapproved genetically adjusted living being (GMO) contamination of U.S. rice (FSA, 2007).

This source is a 2014 article “The High Cost of Cheap Chicken” by the CR Investigates Consumers Union. The CR Investigator reports the issues of the United State poultry companies’ regulations and health safety in packaged chickens. The article states the major’s issue on bacterial contamination of packaged chickens and the issue of antibiotic-resistant bacteria of organic chicken. The CR Investigator reports that “48 million people fall sick every year from eating food tainted with salmonella, campylobacter, E-Coli, and other contaminants.” This scholarly article reports details and reliable source from USDA and a professor of University of Minnesota. I will use this article to help me support the major issue of packaged chicken and organic chicken.

Fungal contamination of food usually occurs accidentally, but it could occur purposefully as an act of bioterror or biological warfare. The potent acute toxicity and chemical stability of mycotoxins aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), and T-2 toxin make them apt to be weaponized for bioterrorism [3]. Cereals represent one of the most important dietary items around the world. Cereals are very susceptible to fungal attacks while in the field and during storage [4]. T-2 toxin is a member of the fungal metabolites known as trichothecene mycotoxin. The major attribute of T-2 toxin is that it inhibit protein synthesis which is followed by a secondary disruption of DNA and RNA synthesis. T-2 toxin affects the actively dividing cells such as those lining the gastrointestinal

Aspergillus flavus is a saprotrophic and pathogenic[1] fungus with a cosmopolitan distribution.[2] It is best known for its colonisation of cereal grains, legumes, and tree nuts. Postharvest rot typically develops during harvest, storage, and/or transit. A. flavus infections can occur while hosts are still in the field (preharvest), but often show no symptoms (dormancy) until postharvest storage and/or transport. In addition to causing preharvest and postharvest infections, many strains produce significant quantities of toxic compounds known as mycotoxins, which, when consumed, are toxic to mammals.[3] A. flavus is also an opportunistic human and animal pathogen, causing aspergillosis in immunocompromised