Black AYA Summary

The honesty box tries to bring out hidden facts behind the myths told by various researchers concerning HIV/AIDS.  Some of these myths are based on the data presented which are usually inflated to favor funding and to act as a precautionary measure that AIDS exists everywhere. The book opens the ‘honesty box’ on drawbacks of medical research within the tropics. Pisani tackles highly contentious issues with zest, including the possible public health shortcoming of antiretroviral treatment, in addition to the benefits of mandatory HIV/AIDS testing. The author also presents data to show that if couples living in Thailand were to have further premarital sex, then their men would be the least likely to use commercial sex workers and the

HIV/ AIDS affect African Americans at a higher rate than any other race (White, Asian, and Hispanic). With African Americans making up approximately 13 percent of the U.S. population, in 2014, they made up almost half of all new HIV/AIDS cases; 44 percent. African American men accounted for 73 percent of new HIV/AIDS cases, and of that 43 percent of African American men were heterosexual (CDC 2014). Since heterosexual African American men don’t equate to the larger population of HIV cases as compared to African American men who have sex with men, these heterosexual men are virtually invisible in the theoretical and empirical psychological HIV/AIDS literature (Bowleg, 2004, p.166).

Providers possess a multiplicity of roles in today’s society. It is typical that patients trust their physicians and should feel comfortable seeing them; however, not all communities can feel this way about their providers. Iatrophobia is prominent within the African-American community, and a history of medical abuses against this community may have a link to such present-day health inequalities as shorter life spans and higher infant mortality rates than Whites.

A group study by (Ferrera, 2015) revealed that racial oppression was another factor of women trust in physicians. Most patients felt that they were treated differently due to their race. The participant expressed that clinical placement in the Chicago community was in accessible. One explained that most of the free clinics are

Though it has been apparent that people of color have been treated as a subclass within the medical field for centuries; as was brought to light in The Tuskegee Syphilis Study, the recognition of forced hysterectomies and sterilizations of African American women in the 20th century and, to “The Negro Project” which worked to reduce the African American population through eugenics (Feagin & Bennefield, 2014). With even these three examples it is clear that the medical field has played a large role in creating both psychological and physical disadvantages and trauma for minority groups in America. Yet, it seems to be a subject that many professionals refuse to address. A meta-analysis conducted by Mayberry, Mili and Ofili found that,

Many people are unaware of their health status further increasing transmission of disease in young adult African American(AA) women age 18-24. Human Immunodeficiency Viruses (HIV) infects and also destroy blood cells (i.e. lymphocytes) that the body need to fight off infection (Mays 2011). African American women HIV positive, age 18-24 the magnitude of issue of the health disparity in this particular population will be addressed along with the many factors of social and health determinants. The health concern is towards the increase of transmission among young AA mothers and their children who are the health outcomes in many ways than one. The many social and health determinants that affect the women today are on going cycles that have yet to be broken. African American women make 64% of new infection cases for HIV. African american obtain a vulnerability unlike other minorities. The health population’s culture and stigma has played an important role in the community. The concern for AA women is the increase of new cases and most importantly the spread of the disease to these women’s children. The mortality rate of AA women with HIV is 47.1% as of 2012. (Siddiqi 2015)

It is reported in the work of Wang (2008) that during the years of 1988 to 2003, "84.1% of patients in the GISP were African American, whereas during that same period 83.0% of male patients in the United States reported through the National Notifiable Disease Surveillance System to have gonorrhea were African American." The gonorrhea rate among African Americans was reported at "18 times greater than the rate for white persons." (Wang, 2008)

According to recent statistics from the Centers for Disease Control, approximately 1.2 million individuals in the United States have HIV (about 14 percent of which are unaware of their infection and another 1.1 million have progressed to AIDS. Over the past decade, the number of HIV cases in the US has increased, however, the annual number of cases remains stable at about 50, 000 new cases per year. Within these estimates, certain groups tend to carry the burden of these disease, particularly the gay, bisexual, and men who have sex with men (MSM) and among race/ethnic groups, Blacks/African American males remain disproportionately affected. (CDC)

The infection rates of HIV in women ages 15-24 is approximately twice as high as men in the same age group. Access to sexual and reproductive health services in Africa is restricted by the gender inequality, stigma and discrimination in the face of high HIV/AIDS prevalence. The study is limited to 2 cities, Uyo and Calabar; major centers of HIV/AIDS response. Interviews reveal that large numbers of people, especially from rural regions, are improperly informed and unaware of the nature of HIV/AIDS. An outreach program displayed HIV prevention messages, but the signs were in English. Access to ART can be difficult. Poorer women cannot afford repeat visits to clinics. Societal issues are present; HIV/AIDS stigma is widespread and families will outcast individuals, denying them of any support. The study also showed a declining confidence in ART as a form of treatment. Respondents reported cases of those on HIV/AIDS treatment who developed further infections. The article displays the need for better education and programs to help people access treatment for

In conclusion, the “down low” will always be a term stereotypically use toward the African American male. The term “down low” should not characterize African American community exclusively because research has shown Latinos utilized the term also. There is a barrier among the communities due to the fact white communities are not termed as such. Even with sexual preferences, there is still segregation among the cultures. If men on the “down low” would take responsibility for their actions and admit, they are gay or bisexual this would give the females a chance to know about their preferences and either leave or choose to use protection during sexual relations. As long as males of either community continue to be on the DL keep silent the number of women who infected with HIV or AIDS will continue to climb. For this reason, males within each community have a responsibility to inform their partners and to take precaution when having sex with other males.

In this chapter I aim to explore support from the community and healthcare providers. According to Logie and Gadalla, (2009) social support is critical in mitigating the negative effects of stigma and discrimination. Black Africans experience more stigma and more vulnerable due to their limited access to coping resources caused by poverty, immigration status and unfamiliarity with a foreign culture (Kelaher, Williams and Manderson, 2001). Support from the Community In the UK, xenophobia and racism have been identified as reasons for discrimination directed towards Africans immigrants living with HIV (Dodds, 2006). It was observed that fear of stigmatisation amongst Black Africans leads to non-disclosure of their HIV status.

Various studies show evidence that link the relationship between social determinants of health and the risk for HIV. Interrelated social determinants of health can create a context of vulnerability and risk for HIV. It is very important to be able to recognize the interrelation components of HIV risk in order determine the HIV prevention response that is the most effective. For instance, research shows that HIV rates are significantly higher in Black men who have sex with men (MSM) than for MSM of other races. These rates, which are very disproportionate, are not attributable to a higher frequency of sexual risk behaviors. To appropriately address risk for MSM of different races, it is imperative to understand the process of disease transmission among these populations, in other words, the social determinants of health that are involved, such as access to healthcare (CHLA, 2012).

For this health promotion assignment, the subject I have chosen to discuss is sexually transmitted infections (STI’s). STIs are spread from one person to another through intimate sexual contact but can also spread through non-sexual means such as via the blood or from mother to child during pregnancy (World health organisation (WHO), 2016). According to Mudhar (2013) groups that are particularly at a higher risk are young adults, men who have sex with men (MSM), black African and Caribbean communities. With more than one million STI’s acquired everyday worldwide, it is a major public health issue within society (WHO, 2016). Even though the overall health of the population in England has significantly improved over the past 50 years because of the highly valued NHS, health inequalities are still a dominant feature of health across all regions in England and many people still find it hard to accept that serious health inequalities still exist (Marmot, 2010).

The Black Flower was written by Howard Bahr and published in June in the year of 1997. Howard Bahr, a native of Oxford, Mississippi, teaches English at Motlow State Community College in Tennessee. He has written many short stories, essays, and articles, many of which deal with the American Civil War.

In my studies I have found that HIV/AIDS is one of the largest growing epidemics among African American’s. Along with the stigmas individuals have to face, there lay the unspoken thought process of “It wouldn’t or couldn’t happen to me”. Poverty, severe drug abuse, unprotected sex, and lack of education are just a few contributing factors to the growing numbers related to this infectious disease among the African American communities. When you add all these factors into one community the results is just that of the soaring number of individual infected from young to old.