Bone Turnover Markers

One of the key elements of regulating skeletal growth is the Osteoclasts. The Osteoclasts are responsible for initiating the bone remodeling cycle. Blood vessels and nerves are able to penetrate the bone once the chondrocytes die

There are different laboratory tests that can be ran by doctors that helps in diagnosing osteoporosis. These tests are run with samples of blood and urine from the patient. Some of the tests are blood calcium levels, 24-hour urine calcium measurement, thyroid function tests, parathyroid hormone levels, testosterone levels in men, 25-hydroxyvitamin D test to determine whether the body had enough vitamin D, and biochemical marker tests, such as NTX and CTX (NOF, 2010).

Introduction: The relationships between serum N-terminal propeptide of type 1 collagen [P1NP], a marker of bone formation, with metabolic and clinical factors have rarely been determined and remain unclear.

Natural bone tissue possesses a nanocomposite structure that provides appropriate physical and biological properties. For bone tissue regeneration, it is crucial for the biomaterial to mimic living bone tissue. Since no single type of material is able to mimic the composition, structure and properties of native bone, nanocomposites are the best choice for bone tissue regeneration as they can provide the appropriate matrix environment, integrate desirable biological properties, and provide controlled, sequential delivery of multiple growth factors for the different stages of bone tissue regeneration. Bioactive polymer/hydroxyapatite (nano) composites are currently being intensively investigated as materials for promotion of bone tissue regeneration

Bone is surrounded by a thin membranous layer of soft tissue called periosteum (Singh, 2017). When the bone breaks it bleeds from torn ends because of the disruption of the supplying blood vessels. And quite naturally the periosteum is also torn. A fracture hematoma forms and white blood cells march in to clean up the area that is injured. The periosteum is the primary source of osteoblasts, which plays a huge role in fracture healing (Singh, 2017). After the hematoma formation, the next step is callous formation with the formation of cartilage and bone and then the remodeling phase consisting of the osteoclasts and the osteoblasts reshaping the bone to its original state (Patton, 2012).

The purpose of this paper is to better inform the readers what stress markers are and what they are able to tell an anthropologist about a person. The reason that this is important is that it can help identify specific traits of how the person lived their life and a potential understanding of their work. In reading this paper you will hopefully have a better understanding how sex, age, and lifestyles can influence stress markers on bones of the shoulder joints.

Introduction: Osteoporosis is a disease that disproportionately affects postmenopausal women. It is an important disease for public health to address as it greatly contributes to frailty and risk of injury, largely due to fractures, and the associated burdens on the health care system. Literally translating to “porous bones”, osteoporosis occurs when bones lose their density, and the inner bone matrix becomes much more brittle (Figure 1).1,2 Health adult bones are in a constantly dynamic state, with living cells that multiply to grow and repair bones as we age. Bones structurally consist of a hard, calcified outer layer, and an inner matrix made of collagen and non-collagen proteins.3 Healthy bone mass, and the structure of this inner matrix, is maintained through processes called resorption and remodeling.1 Resorption occurs as some cells dissolve bone matrix for the body to reabsorb and reuse the minerals, and remodeling occurs simultaneously as other cells deposit new bone matrix proteins to replace the dissolved minerals. Each remodeling activity is associated with a slight net loss in bone mass, and as such, healthy adults achieve peak bone density in their early 20s, and bone density gradually declines thereafter.1,4

Forth, reproducibility of QUS measurements and bone densitometry results are highly correlated as long as the measurement was done in the same location and along direction. If it was done in different directions, differences in results will be observed. [2]

While there has been some accord with respect to change of the proliferation capability of osteoblasts, some unfriendly impacts of FGF2 on the osteogenic separation and generalization have likewise been recognized.(Bosetti et al.) examined the striking of different FGFs (FGF2, FGF4, and FGF6) on the behavior of human-necessary osteoblasts. They examined that all FGFs activated in culture medium at 0.8 μM incited osteoblast enlargement yet stopped ALP motion and generalization. When it comes to Vitamin D, it was

Bones provide body structure, protect organs, anchor muscles, and store calcium. Good health habits such as eating nutritious foods and exercising regularly are important for maintaining healthy bones. They can also help prevent thinning and loss of density in the bones (osteoporosis).

Osteocytes are the most abundant cell type in human bones and play a fundamental role in bone homeostasis. Representing 95% of all mature bone cells and have the longest lifespan in all bone cells, up to decades, osteocytes are the key to bone integrity1. They are initially derived from osteoblasts, residing within bones and take part in bone metabolism through excessive communication with other bone cell populations, including osteoblasts, osteoclasts and most importantly, osteocyte progenitors. Osteocytes secrete soluble signalling factors that regulate both bone formation and bone dissociation.

Calculating bone mineral density through dual energy x-ray absorptiometry is a method to determine bone mass and structural deterioration of the skeletal system. It uses a combination of low and high x-ray energy levels by using an energy switching system to determine the bone mass of an area. The procedure is termed bone densitometry that can be used to detect pathological conditions that the victim possessed pre-death. For instance, the lesser the bone mineral density the victim had, the more of a likelihood of the victim being older as with increasing age complements the loss of bone mineral. Additionally, certain levels of bone mineral density can be an indicator of pathology such as a high bone mineral density associated with acromegaly

Fibroblasts and osteoblasts enter the area of the blood clot and begin to reform bone. Fibroblasts are cells that pronounce connective tissues, while osteoblasts secrete the matrix for bone formation. Fibroblasts produce collagen that connect the ends of broken bone together while the osteoblasts start to form new spongy bone. The connective tissue between the ends of the bone is called the fibrocartilaginous callus. (“Bone Remodeling and Repair” boundless.com) This callus of hyaline and fibrous cartilage acts as a splint for the fracture. This phase is called the bone generation/soft callus formation phase. (“Anatomical Kinesiology: Types of Fractures, healing, and clinical advances in bone repair.”

Osseous tissue contains specialized cells, cell products, and a fluid matrix. The distinctive solid, stony nature of bone results from the deposition of calcium salts within the matrix. Crystals of calcium phosphate account for almost two-thirds of the weight of the bone. The majority of

Since the beginning of 20th century, collagen has been reviewed extensively in studies and researches. Collagen is the most abundant protein in vertebras and signifies 30% of the proteins in the body. The composition of collagen is manifested in various parts of the body like bone, skin, cartilage and blood vessel. Collagen fibre is the main structure in extracellular matrix contributing great assistance in maintaining the integrity of cells and tissues structures. The major functions of collagen include the provision of strength and elasticity, along with maintaining rigidity. Till date, 28 types of collagen have been identified and they are classified into few sub-group. A number of factors distinguish a collagen from another such as morphological characteristics, molecular compositions, distributions, and functions. Of all types of collagen, type I collagen is the most abundant form and is responsible for substituting 90% of the body’s collagen. In view of the important of collagen type I collagen in human body structures and functions, the aim of this paper is to provide in-depth information about type I collagen post-translational modification process, and diseases that are governed by it.