CNS Metabolic Pathway Analysis

In a society where quantity of work overpowers quality of work, there is no wonder why "neuroenhancing" drugs such as Adderall and Ritalin are on the rise of consumption. As more people adopt the idea that these drugs are cognitively beneficial; the more they secretly use them for non-medical reasons. Margaret Talbot, a writer for The New Yorker, looks more into this problem in her article, "From Brain Gain: The Underground World of "Neuroenhancing" Drugs". Throughout this article Talbot focuses on a new trend of drug use, such as Adderall and Ritalin, for non-medical intentions. She focuses mainly on the increase of drug use by scholars and public intellectuals throughout her article. Talbot successfully proves to her audience that non-medical

In this class, we focused on Alzheimer's, specifically how it affected the person. I found myself especially drawn to the chemistry behind it and how the brain was altered in ways that couldn't be examined until the autopsy. Alzheimer’s is a disease that as of yet has no cure, but has the potential to affect a fair majority of the population in the future. In view of this, I want to approach potential treatments neurological diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson’s from a chemical standpoint and attempt to find preventative measures if not a cure. With this in mind, my interests lie in both organic chemistry and biochemistry. I am interested in the use of organic synthesis to create new medically useful compounds. Moreover, I am interested in the neurological responses and biological effects of the newly created compounds and how said compounds are applicable in the medical

Energy comes in the form of chemical, mechanical, electrical and heat. Energy can be converted and cannot be created or destroyed. In nutrition, energy is measured by a unit of kilocalorie or commonly called a calorie. Fifty percent of food kilocalories from eating produce ATP through reactions of glycolysis and in the mitochondria of the cell. Another fifty percent is lost as heat. Energy comes though foods and body energy reserves. Exercise will increase energy metabolism. A basal metabolic rate or BMR is the amount of energy or kilocalories to keep organs functioning and to stay alive. BMR estimates are made with measuring resting metabolic rate or RMR. RMR measures metabolism when a person is not using energy to digest or absorb food and

A decrease of water in the blood is perceived by the Hypothalamus. The Hypothalamus nerve cells produce a kind of water pill hormone called (ADH). ADH hormones enters the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland and exist through the rear lobe of the pituitary gland. ADH starts an increase in the absorption of water to the distal consulate tubes and collecting ducts of the nephron. Water is transported from being filtered back into the blood, causing an increase collection of water in the blood leading to more blood volume. Therefore, increasing the blood pressure and decreasing the urine output amounts.

In this study, the authors discovered a new gene mutation implicated in the onset of Leigh syndrome, a neurodegenerative disease caused by lesions in multiple parts of the central nervous system. The gene mutation was found in a girl with first-cousin parents. Since the girl did not contain mutations of the existing candidate genes for Leigh disease, whole-exome sequence was used to search for a novel homozygous mutation. It was discovered that the patient has a missense mutation in SLC25A46, a gene that codes for a mitochondrial metabolite carrier protein. The authors wanted to determine the role that mutant SLC25A46 has on causing Leigh syndrome. In addition, the authors wanted to make clear the molecular functions of wild-type SLC24A46.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is an incurable, progressive movement disorder affecting approximately one million Americans (www.pdf.org) and is the 14th leading cause of death in the US (www.cdc.gov). The pathogenesis of PD involves the degeneration of neurons, especially dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra of the midbrain [1], and the presence of Lewy bodies/neuritis in various brain regions [2]. Deficiency of the nigro-striatal pathways can cause dopamine depletion-specific symptoms such as motor dysfunctions and multiple non-motor clinical issues. The clinical diagnosis of PD is based on the four cardinal symptoms: tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia, and postural instability [3], which are delayed and subtle. Since the

According to research mitochondria can lead to the development of Parkinson’s disease. Mitochondria are the energy-producing constituents of cell and are the principal sources of free radicals. Free radicals are molecules that harm proteins, membranes, DNA and other parts of the cell. This damage is known as oxidative stress. Changes in brain cells due to oxidative stress such as free radical damage to DNA, fats, proteins have been seen in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Clinical studies are now going on to observe whether factors thought to boost energy metabolism and reduce oxidative stress are helpful in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. Recent studies have shown that mutations in genes associated with Parkinson’s disease leads to impairment of mitochondria.

correlate poorly with the level of consciousness, as measured by the Glasgow Coma Scale, in

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is one of the most frequent neurodegenerative diseases, falling second to Alzheimer’s disease. It is stated that there are roughly 5 million individuals worldwide and 1 million individuals in the U.S. that suffer from PD. PD arises from the lack of dopamine in the brain along with the degradation of dopaminergic neurons, particularly in the substantia nigra pars compacta.1 The degradation of the dopamine neurons increases the number of free radicals in the substantia nigra which in turn increase oxidative stress.2 In the brain, Lewy bodies can be seen in different locations, based on the progression of PD. As the knowledge of PD pathophysiology evolved, the etiology of the disease has yet to be determined but genetic and environmental factors being studied.

The metabolism of opioids takes place in the liver with the help of the enzymes (Serepell Michael, 2011). Metabolism refers to the process of bio transfusion, where the drug breaks down so that it can eliminate by the body (NCBI). The enzyme responsible for the codeine metabolism is CYP2D6, and it converts codeine into morphine (FDA, 2012). Morphine is glucuronidated to two metabolites with potential differences in the efficiency and the toxicity: morphine-6-glucuronide (M6G) and morphine-3-glucuronide (M3G) (NCBI). M6G is a µ- receptor agonist and causes the analgesia. Poor or rapid CYP2D6 metabolizers do not respond well with codeine, whereas, codeine toxicity reported in rapid metabolizers (NCBI). Both of this interferes with the normal

It’s always been a mystery why completely healthy people are diagnosed with cancer at some point in life; people who have never smoked a cigarette can contract lung cancer, and children are frequently diagnosed with pancreatic cancer or leukemia. Pathway Genomics, infamous for pushing boundaries when it comes to genetic testing, has just developed a liquid biopsy that can detect cancer DNA in the blood of healthy men, women and children.

The human body consists of many different systems which work together for one ultimate purpose; to keep the body functioning properly. For years scientists have studied the components of the body, but sometimes research only leads to more questions. One of those questions being, What if people were born without adrenal glands? With the different mutations discovered in the human genes throughout the recent years, this could be possible. In fact, if this occurred, the body would not be able to regulate metabolism or maintain an internal balance between salt and water. This would also hinder a woman’s ability to become pregnant.

This form of protection of the brain from hyperglycemia would reduce the influence of hyperglycemia on the brain as well as limit the influence of the preceding extrapolations of the polyol pathway observations from the peripheral nerve to the central nervous system (CNS). Additional study is therefore necessary to determine the long-term effects of hyperglycemia on brain

The roles of Apo E that is synthesized in the immune system and the nervous system on lipid and lipoprotein metabolism are not well understood (Eichner et al., 2002), (Anthopoulos et al., 2010).

In the central nervous system, neurons, microglia, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes secrete exosomes into the extracellular environment (Glebov 2015), raising the possibility that communication mediated via extracellular vesicles is a common mechanism in the CNS. It has been reported that exosomes are involved in the normal development and physiology of the nervous system. One study demonstrated that mature hippocampal and cortical neurons released exosomes in response to calcium and glutamatergic synaptic activity, which suggests a role in normal physiology (Lachenal 2011).