CPSS-I-5 Summary

Between February 2001 and April 2003, many were completed by approximately 9,282 Americans, 18 years of age or above, completed a survey that was conducted by The National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). According to The National Comorbidity Survey Replication study, 5,692 Americans were diagnosed with PTSD. However, this research used the DSM-4 criteria. It was estimated that the lifetime prevalence was about 6.8% for Americans in young adulthood. This was a jump from the previous year at 3.5%. The lifetime prevalence for women was higher, at 9.7%, than it was for men at 3.6%. “Kessler, R.C., Berglund, P., Delmer, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K.R., & Walters, E.E. (2005).”

However, Diaz and Motta focused their study on adolescent participants and on PTSD. For this study, participants were between the ages of 14 and 17 and were all female from a residential treatment facility that met the criteria for PTSD (Diaz & Motta, 2008). The researchers used the following self-report inventories to measure the level of PTSD: (a) Child PTSD Symptom Scale [CPSS] (Foa, Johnson, Feeny, & Treadwell, 2001), (b) Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children [TSCC] (Briere, 1996), (c) Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children [MASC] (March, 1997), (d) Children’s Depression Inventory [CDI] (Kovacs, 1992) (Diaz & Motta, 2008).

those who suffered the worst cases of PTSD had sustained stressful and traumatic childhood abuse. In the study, two groups of

When someone hears about Post Traumatic Stress disorder, they assume it only affects those in active duty or military veterans. However, it can affects those who have seen natural disasters, severe child abuse and horrible events. The national comorbidity survey replications did a survey on how many people in the US have PTSD they say, “(NCS-R), conducted between February 2001 and April 2003, comprised interviews of a nationally representative sample of 9,282 Americans aged 18 years and older. PTSD was assessed among 5,692 participants, using DSM-IV criteria. The NCS-R estimated the lifetime prevalence of PTSD among adult Americans to be 6.8% (1). Current past year PTSD prevalence was estimated at 3.5% (2).The lifetime prevalence of PTSD among men was 3.6% and among women was 9.7%.

Three groups were utilized in this study these included, “ those with no mental health diagnoses, those with mental health diagnoses other than PTSD (290.0–319.0, excluding 309.81), and those with PTSD (309.81) and co-morbid mental health diagnoses.” (Cohen, etal, 2009). These groups were followed

Emotional responses such as “intense fear, hopelessness, and horror” are no longer included in the diagnostic features of PTSD in the DSM-5. In the new DSM, behavioral reaction directly related to the traumatic experience are found to be of better use for identifying the onset of PTSD (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The DSM-5 requires the identified symptoms to be classified under four new diagnostic categories:

psychologically changed (Department of Veterans Affairs, 2012; Satel, 2011). Peterson et al. (2011) reported that combat-related trauma is the second leading cause of PTSD in men. In this section, diagnostic criteria, assessment, and interview protocols related to PTSD are discussed. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders – Fourth Edition – Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR, American Psychiatric Association, 2000) outlined criteria for the PTSD diagnosis and defined it according to its symptoms, duration, and the nature of the trauma. According to the DSM-IV-TR (2000) Criterion A must be met in order for a PTSD diagnosis: “the person experienced, witnessed or was confronted with an event or events that involved actual or

To obtain the measures of the study Hukkelberg used different trauma detections. One of the measures Hukkelberg used was” The Traumatic Events Screening Inventory for Children” (as cited in Ford et al., 2000). “The Traumatic Events Screening Inventory for Children was used to assess trauma experiences” (as cited in Ford et al., 2000). “The Traumatic Events Screening Inventory” (as cited in Ford et al.,2000) assed how serious the trauma experiences were that the child went through. The screening was a checklist that included these experiences “severe accident, natural disaster, sudden death or severe illness of a close person, extremely painful medical procedures, violence outside the family context, witnessing violence within the family physical abuse within the family, sexual abuse inside and outside the family, and other overwhelming experiences” (as cited in Ford et al., 2000). The study had the children rate how many times they were involved in from 0 to 3 (p. 263). “The 0= Not at all, 1 Once a week or less/once in a while, 2= 2 to 4 times a week/ half of the time, and 3= 5 or more times a week/ almost always” (Hukkelberg, 2013). If a child circled a three to all or almost all of the experiences they were involved in they were assessed for posttraumatic stress disorder systems (p. 263).

PTSD is a psychological problem that affects people who have survived a traumatic experience. When a person experiences a traumatic event in their life, that event leaves a type of scar on their mind. Unlike physical scars, psychological scars may not heal and the person may be unaware of their symptoms. While these “scars” may not be obvious at first, they may cause problems later in life, sometimes months or years later. This makes recognizing the disorder difficult. However, much research in recent years has increased people’s knowledge of the symptoms of PTSD. It was first defined as a disorder in 1980 by the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) (Galea et al., 2005).

Within the human experience, there has always been a risk of exposure to both physical and psychological trauma. The threat of violence, personal tragedies, and economic and social catastrophes are all possible triggers for an onset of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). What was once reserved as a diagnosis for veterans has been found to affect both young and old. The development of various assessment tools have been used in diagnosing PTSD and one of the most commonly used tests is the Post-Traumatic Stress Diagnostic Scale. It is an assessment that was developed and validated by Edna Foa to provide a brief but reliable self-report measure of PTSD for use in both clinical and research settings (Zalta, Gillihan, Fisher, Mintz, McLean, Yehuda, & Foa, 2014). The Post-Traumatic Diagnostic Scale is an assessment instrument deigned to be taken by adults with at least an eighth grade reading level. This review of will evaluate the hits, misses, false positive errors, and false negative errors of this instrument and how to each area is applied in interpreting the construct measurement of this assessment tool. Although the Post Traumatic diagnostic Scale has consistently ranked high with clinicians and researchers, in self-reporting the definition of trauma can potentially become subjective and compromise the reliability of the assessment tool.

The TSI, a 100 item self-report measure of posttraumatic stress and other psych sequelae of traumatic events, takes on a cognitive behavioral therapy and psychodynamic orientation. It is composed at a 5th grade reading level to ensure fairness and clarity to most, and it is fairly quick to take, and to score afterwards. Respondents are asked to rate how often each symptom has happened to them in the past 6 months. They rate the symptoms on a 4 point Likert scale ranging from 0 “never” to 3 “often.” It is composed of 10 clinical scales used to assess the variety of symptom domains related to trauma. The clinical scales are: Anxious Arousal (AA), Depression (D), Anger/Irritability (AI), Intrusive Experience (IE), Defensive Avoidances (DA), Dissociation

The patients that participated in this study were assessed for various forms of traumatic adversity by using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ). Other materials and methods were used including the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale for Schizophrenia (PANSS) and the Calgary Depression Scale

In an academic journal wrote by Abigail Powers, Negar Fani, Dorthie Cross, Kerry J. Ressler, and Bekh Bradley, there is a focus on a study to "determine specific associations between exposure to childhood abuse, PTSD symptoms, and current psychotic disorder" (Powers et al., 2016). This group of researchers and doctors measured PTSD by a scale called Clinicain Administered PTSD, measured psychotic disorders by using the MINI International Neuropsychiatric Interview, measured child abuse with the Childhood Trauma Questionaire, and also measured lifetime trauma exposure with the Traumatic Events Inventory (Powers et al., 2016). According to the academic journal wrote by Powers' research team, the CTQ is a 25-item, self-report

The trauma history screen (THS) is a self-report measure used to provide a brief and easy way to report individuals experience with events of high levels of stress. It assesses exposure of high magnitude stressors (HMS) and persisting posttraumatic distress (PPD) events. It also helps to identify events with significant and persisting posttraumatic stress disorder. When compared to other long and complex testing measures, the THS allows for a brief and easy measure to a stressful situation (Carlson et al., 2011). It provides 14 events that the individual may have experienced and asks them to click “yes” or “no.” If the participant reports that they have experienced an event, they are asked to report the number of times it has happened to them.

SCID data is expected to indicate 86.7% of the childhood abused group to meet the full DSM IV criteria for childhood abuse related PTSD at the time of the study, whereas 19.4% of the non-abused group is expected to meet PTSD criteria for other type of trauma related. A chi square analysis will be used to find the difference of current PTSD levels, it is expected to find a significant difference within the first year of being exposed to the present study, X2 (1,n=150)=34.43 p< .005. The SCID as well is expected to indicate a mean of 12.0 in the childhood abused group regarding to the levels of PTSD symptoms and a mean of 4.6 in the comparison group. A t-test design will be utilized to find the difference between the groups, which is expected to reveal a significantly difference t (300)= 9.21, p<.001. Shown in table two are the expected means of PTSD levels within the four years sequential study. 83% of the childhood abused group is expected to have higher PTSD levels than the nonabused group with 22.6%, which indicates that throughout the years, the childhood abused group will continue to show higher levels of PTSD, than the nonabused