Causes And Treatment Of Cryptosporidium Species Are Intestinal Protozoan Parasites With A Worldwide Distribution, Responsible For Diarrheal Disease

I might identify cases of cyclosporiasis by interviewing people, asking about their specific symptoms/what have they been eating lately (and from where). I’d use people from the community and patients from hospitals as controls.

The curve on Figure 1 told that the peak of the laboratory-confirmed cases of Cryptosporidiosis outbreak in Utah occurred in the middle of August with the highest number of cases in a day was about 58 cases. The outbreak started to develop in the end of June which had the average cases in a day was about 5 cases. The cases significantly disappeared and start forming an endemic curve again in the late of September with the average cases was less than 5 cases in a day.

Neonatal calf diarrhea remains an important cause of morbidity and mortality in young calves that causes substantial economic losses (Constable, 2004). Diarrhea in neonatal calves is a syndrome of great etiological complexity, in addition to the influence of various environmental, managemental, nutritional and physiological factors, numerous infectious agents are capable of causing neonatal calf diarrhea (Schumann et al., 1990). Multiple enteric pathogens have been recovered from diarrheic calves, their relative prevalence varies geographically but Escherichia coli, Rotavirus, and Coronavirus, C. perfringens, Salmonella spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. are recognized as the most common infectious agents in most areas (Garcia et al., 2000; Snodgrass et al., 1986).

Preliminary results suggest vaccination of animals may be a method of control. Published trials proved that use of a registered Phase I vaccine in infected farms is a tool of major interest to manage or prevent early or late abortion, repeat breeding, anoestrus, silent oestrus, metritis and decreases in milk yield when C. burnetii is the major cause of these problems.

The apicomplexan Cyclospora cayetanensis is an obligate intracellular protozoan that infects human and causing diarrhea worldwide (Lainson 2005; Ortega and Sanchez, 2010) leading to a significant morbidity and mortality in both immunocompromised and immunocompetent hosts (Legua and Seas 2013). Cyclsosporiosis patients may be gastrointestinal symptomatic or asymptomatic and/ or having extraintestinal constitutional symptoms such as weight loss, fever, chills, muscle aches, joint aches, generalized body aches, headache, or fatigue (Mansfield and Gajadhar 2004). Fecally contaminated water, food or soil with sporulated oocysts of C. cayetanensis are the main sources of infection transmission (Herwaldt, 2000; Crist et al., 2004). The host specificity

The research has shown that immunocompetent hosts are potential reservoirs of the fungus in population, as they can transfer it from one person to another when the distance is sufficiently close. Animal studies have demonstrated that even close-contact periods as short as one day can result in transferring Pneumocystis jiroveci from donors to immunocompetent recipients.

manner, Santín and Trout (2007) shown that the prevalence of cryptosporidiosis in older animals is several times lower as compared to calves. The host age is an very important factor that influences the pathogenicity of Cryptosporidium, with calves being more susceptible to infection than adults

Finding appreciable numbers of oocysts of pathogenic species in the feces is diagnostic, but because diarrhea may precede the heavy output of oocysts by 1to 2 days and may continue after the oocyst discharge has returned to low levels, it is not always possible to find oocysts in a single fecal sample. Multiple fecal examinations of one animal or single fecal examinations of animals housed in the same environment may be required. The results of fecal examinations must be related to clinical signs and intestinal lesions. The finding of numerous oocysts of a nonpathogenic species concurrent with diarrhea does not constitute a diagnosis of clinical coccidiosis. The life cycles of Eimeria are self-limiting and end spontaneously within a few weeks unless reinfection occurs. The use of medication may slow or inhibit development of stages resulting from reinfection and can shorten the length of illness, reduce discharge of oocysts, alleviate hemorrhage and diarrhea, and lessen the likelihood of secondary infections and death. Sick animals should be isolated and treated individually whenever possible to ensure delivery of therapeutic drug levels and to prevent exposure of other animals. Treatment for clinical coccidiosis has not been demonstrated for any

A cyclospora infection is caused by a single-celled parasite of the same name. The condition was first diagnosed in 1977, with the number of reports increasing in the following years. The parasite enters the body when a person consumes water or food, often in the form of fresh produce, which has been contaminated by an infected person. Anyone of any age can contract the parasite, although the organism is generally seen in people who live or often travel to countries in the tropical regions.

Considering that these hills and uplands are the main areas from where water catchment is made, sheep has been inferred as a source of waterborne Cryptosporidium spp. outbreaks in England (Nichols et al., 2006; McLauchlin et al., 2000). Furthermore, C. parvum was the hazardous microorganism in 84 per cent of sporadic cases detected in Scotland, supporting sheep faecal pollution of water sources as the leading cause of sporadic cryptosporidiosis (McLauchlin et al., 2000). These cases could be imply by the fact that sheep population increases every year, and so nowadays 22.9 million sheep are recorded in the UK (DEFRA, 2015), becoming a potential risk for hosting and later contagion of the parasite. Besides, sheep are widely distributed in higher hills than other livestock, managed differently with flock grazing large enclosures rather than being kept indoors. At the same time, a seasonal pattern with spring and autumn peaks of human cryptosporidiosis cases was observed, with the spring peak concurring with the lambing season (Cacció and Widmer, 2014, pp. 170-172; Mueller-Doblies et al., 2008; Pritchard et al., 2007). The evidence supports a link between the infections in humans and the contact with infected faeces of sheep (Hashim et al., 2006). Nevertheless; Cryptosporidium species have been isolated from cattle, goats, water buffalos and other livestock (Cacció and Widmer, 2014, pp. 170-172), thus not even removing sheep from grazing ground where water drinking is collected would eliminate the zoonosis. There is to consider that 9.8 million cattle are distributed in the UK (DEFRA, 2015), and such other livestock; representing a risk factor as well. Additionally, the protozoan may not be uniformly distributed through all sheep populations, thus specific ages, classes or

Intestinal cryptosporidiosis is one of the most significant diarrheal diseases affecting people around the world. The condition is caused by the oocyst-forming protozoan parasite from the genus Cryptosporidium that has the propensity to survive in and transmit through source waters, making it a paramount public health threat.

This bacteria’s host range is incredibly large as it’s able to infect many vertebrates (including humans, swine, birds, fish – found in the surrounding mucous film, etc.) (Wang et al., 2010), and invertebrates (including various species of flies, mites, lice, ticks, etc.) (Wang et al., 2010). However, swine is known as E. rhusiopathiae’s primary reservoir (Markey et al., 2013), or reservoir host, as it’s found within the tonsils and lymphoid tissues and is commonly expelled through the intestinal tract. (Imada et al., 2003).

Parasites are organisms which live in close association to a host organism, the relationship is non-mutualistic, in which the parasite benefits and the host incurs costs. (Roberts & Janovy, 2008) The costs range from a visible form of reduced fecundity or survival, but also more subtly such as reduced attractiveness, leading to reduced mating success (Ebert, 2005).

Cryptosporidium is wide spread in Australian dairy calves with prevalence as high as 100% in some herds. Infected calves can be asymptomatic, however, typical clinical signs include: 
loose, watery diarrhea, straining, anorexia, 
weight loss, 
depression, 
dehydration. Humans can be infected either directly or indirectly by consuming food or water contaminated with ooysts or by inadequate hand washing practices after exposure to infective feces or animals. Many people do not develop illness after exposure. Individuals with the greatest susceptibility to cryptosporidiosis include the young childeren, elderly, malnourished, disease impaired (i.e. those with diabetes, or chronic disease), and a broad group of immunocompromised individuals (i.e. AIDS patients, transplant recipients, and those receiving chemotherapy) who may become infected with lower number oocysts. For those individuals that show clinical signs, explosive watery diarrhea and abdominal pain are common. Vomiting, nausea, fever, and muscle cramps can also occur. The symptoms usually resolve in 7 to 14 days in an immunocompetent host. Oocyte excretion may continue to occur for up to an additional 1 to 4 weeks post resolution of clinical signs. Cryptosporidium are able to survive for prolonged periods in the environment under favorable conditions (temperatures from 0°C to 65°C) and are resistant to most common disinfectants (including chlorine bleaches and alcohol). Cryptosporidium loses its infectivity by

They then gradually spread and form ring of necrotizing tissue (Sedlakova et al 2011). At first the plant will look healthy before the lesions are visible on the outside. This is also a challenge for the farmers because they will not know if their produce is unhealthy until it is visible. By the time they can cut of the plant the disease would have spread to the neighboring plants as well. P. infestans are produced through sexual and asexual mating. The two mating types are known as A1 and A2 ( Nowicki et al 2012). When mycelia of both types interact they produce oospores sexually. Mycelia is the branched filament of fungi (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2017). Oospores are spores that have a thick coating that allows them to survive harsh environmental conditions for a long period (Nowicki et al 2012). When both these types mate they produce a worse isolate compared to only if A1 mating occurs. The production of these more harmful isolates was detected by researchers in United States which has made controlling this pathogen more difficult (Fall et al 2015). Sporangia of P. infectans also produce zoospores through asexual mating. Sexual and asexual mating is influenced by the environment. Asexual is mating is encouraged when the weather is a warmer and oospores are produced in cooler weather hence for the thick coating of oospores.