Cdc's Pregnancy Mortality Surveillance Process

Prenatal exposure of a child to harm due to the mother’s use of an illegal drug or other substance.

Infant mortality rate constitutes the death of a baby before their first birthday. Mortality rates around the world differ tremendously with America leading the first world countries at an alarming rate of 6.1 deaths per 1,000 births. Conversely, Finland and Japan secure the last, most desirable position, with deaths totaling 2.3 per 1,000 births, as of 2010. (Ovaska-Few, 2015) In 2014, over 23,000 babies died in the United States. (CDC, 2016) Exploring the mortality rates in America brings light to a dire need for additional interventions and research as to why this developing nation has the highest rate of infant deaths before the age of 1 year old. African Americans face the worst outcomes of infant death compared to whites, Latino, and their Native American peers in North Carolina. (Ovaska-Few, 2015) This paper will explore why African American are the leading race for infant mortality and the steps that health communities need to take to address this devastating occurrence.

Rape related pregnancies requires further studying as it is a significant issue and requires more attention. To date there is a lack of empirical research showing how many women choose to terminate rape related pregnancies but studies remain showing that on average 1% of women who terminate their pregnancy is due to rape (SOURCE 4, 6, 8). Though research on terminating rape-related pregnancies is understudied, there is a vast amount proposing that women who seek to terminate their pregnancy as a result of rape do so later than those who were not raped (1, 2, 4) As discussed earlier, rape is an underreported crime. With an average of 1 in 3 women seeking post assault medical care, abortion may be the first time women with rape-related pregnancies access care after an assault (source

Care for pregnant women is even more dismal, considering their additional health needs” (p. 11). The quantitative report goes on to state that many pregnant offenders have undiagnosed or untreated conditions that can increase the pregnancy risks and contribute to poor birth outcomes. Mothers Behind Bars surveyed all 50 states regarding prenatal care and found: 43 states did not require medical examinations as a component of prenatal care; 41 states did not require prenatal nutrition counseling or the provision of appropriate nutrition; 34 states did not require screening and treatment for high-risk pregnancies; 48 states did not offer advice on activity levels and safety during pregnancy; 45 states did not make advance arrangements for deliveries with particular hospitals; and 49 states failed to report all incarcerated women’s pregnancies and their outcomes (The Rebecca Project for Human Rights and the National Women's Law Center, 2010). Researchers did not list under limitations of their findings if obstetric care was provided inside or contracted to an outside care provider. This information would have been beneficial and may have affected the state’s responses to the survey questions. Ferszt and Clarke (2012) conducted a qualitative survey of 50 wardens, a warden at a women’s correctional

Death and illnesses among women, infant, and child are preventable. In pregnancy, existing health risks can distinguish or prevent any future health problems for women and their children. According to U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2016), some high-risk factors that may consider are the following: hypertension, heart disease, diabetes, depression, genetic conditions, sexually transmitted diseases, tobacco and alcohol abuse, inadequate nutrition and unhealthy weight. By having this government Healthy 2020 initiative, factors that can affect the pregnancy and childbirth such as poverty,

According to Healthy People 2020, "Improving the well-being of mothers, infants, and children, is an important public health goal for the United States. Their well-being determines the health of the next generation and can help predict future public health challenges for families, communities, and the health care system" (Healthy People 2020, 2015). Infant mortality is defined as the death of an infant before his or her first birthday, while fetal mortality is defined as the intrauterine death of a fetus at any gestational age (MMRW, 2013 and MacDorman, Kirmeyer & Wilson, 2012). In the United States an estimated 13,000 fetal deaths occurred ≥ 28 weeks gestation making up 28% of all perinatal deaths in 2006, the latest year with available national data (Lee,

In a country where there are more jails than colleges and a total incarceration population of 2.3 million and eighteen percent being female, it is no surprise that there are roughly 2,000 babies born to female inmates annually. At any given time, between eight and ten percent of the females incarcerated in the United States are pregnant. Currently, only ten states allow a mother to remain with her child after giving birth. For the other mothers, they are to give the baby to a reliable family member within 48 hours otherwise it will be placed in foster care. The current number of women in prison is at an all time high, and while the number for pregnant incarcerated females continues to grow, there is still limited medical treatment for mothers

Prior to the landmark case of Roe vs. Wade, abortion was legal in the United States under common law and with several stipulations. It was legal under the advice of medical personnel or in the attempt to save a mother’s life. Though abortion were widely available it was considered a secretive and “back alley” procedure that threatened the life of the patient and the persons conducting the abortion. In 1965, illegal abortions made up one-sixth of all pregnancy- and childbirth-related deaths. A survey conducted between 1965 and 1967 found that 8 in 10 low-income women in New York City who had an abortion attempted a dangerous self-induced procedure (planedparenthood.com).

The probability of a woman's death is 1/11,000 in abortions after 21 weeks. A mother is not only taking the life of an innocent child, but she is putting herself at risk. For instance, “Dangers and risks of...” Martin Mcatee discusses complications that third-term abortions also come with. There is a high risk of infection to the mother due to surgical instruments being introduced into the mother's uterus, and possible dead tissue of the fetus parts being left behind. Dead tissue left behind after the abortion can enter the mother's bloodstream and result in sepsis, a deadly blood disease. Therefore, abortions can harm both the mother and the fetus, and should not be an option for the

The rationality of those who support the punishment of addicted mothers focus on the idea that maternal conduct could lead to potential detrimental effects upon the fetus and that prosecution of such behavior would serve as both retribution for the fetus and as a deterrent. Whereas those who advocate for the pregnant women view this rational as not only impermissible but also unconstitutional as in current legal standing the fetus has no rights that usurp those of the pregnant woman (Stone-Manista, 2009, pp.823-856). Advocates also suggests that the breadth of forces that lead to drug use in pregnant women have a prevalent cultural and social foundation that the proponents for deterrence and retribution ignore in favor of strict scrutiny. This conflict between women’s rights and fetal rights has caused a paradigm in the prosecution of pregnant drug users as the interpretation of criminal sanctions argues over the definition of ‘child’ as encompassing fetuses in the definition would then lay the foundation for punishment for a woman’s conduct during pregnancy (Stone-Magnets, 2009, pp.823-856). Though currently it is unconstitutional and legally impermissible to prosecute women with state child abuse statutes in regards to drug use during pregnancy; advocates of fetal rights continue to follow

Centre for Maternal and Child Enquiries (CMACE) (2011) Saving mothers’ lives; reviewing maternal deaths to make motherhood safer: 2006-2008. BJOG 18(1): 1-203. London. Blackwell Synergy.

Although IPV occurs in all racial and socioeconomic groups there are some risk factors that increase the risk of intimate partner violence such as being of the female gender, unmarried, low socioeconomic class, young age, uninsured, history of and/or experiencing abuse in childhood, and unintended pregnancy (Bunn, Higa, Parker, & Kaneshiro, 2009; Gottlieb, 2012). Many women believe that during pregnancy the abuse will go away, but unfortunately often it does not (Smith, 2008). Abuse during pregnancy is dangerous to not only the health of the woman but also to that of the fetus. According to Smith (2008), women who are subjected to intimate partner violence during pregnancy are more likely to have pregnancy complications such as preterm labor, miscarriage, infants with low birth weight, sexually transmitted infections, fetal death, late entry into care, and use drugs and alcohol (Smith, 2008). Also there is an increase risk of domestic homicide if abuse is to occur

This essay explores postpartum depression and crime. Form intensive research, readers should be able to educate themselves on the actual disorder itself, and how it is linked to crime. In fact, more than half of the cases that involve infant fatality in the United States, have resulted from unawareness of mental illness’s such as PPD. Discussed in the essay, is the Andrea Yates cases, which involve a Houston, Texas mother, suffering from postpartum psychosis. However, the outcome of Yates cases, resulted in numerous studies involving women with PPD. However, the main focus of the essay is to express the importance of the disorder, and how crime can be prevented if pregnant mother seek treatment. As specified throughout the essay, PPD is a serious mental disorder.

In 2013, 289 000 women died during pregnancy and childbirth and it was estimated that everyday 800 women all over the world died from childbirth or childbirth-related problems (World Health Organization, 2014). Often, maternal mortality is found to occur more often in developing countries than developed countries. Maternal mortality refers women who died from the situation like during pregnancy, termination of pregnancy within 42 days, regardless of duration and place of pregnancy, from aggravation caused by the pregnancy or pregnancy management (Nwagha et al, 2010). Maternal mortality may be resulted from direct or indirect cause. Direct causes are from obstetric complications of pregnancy, labour, and puerperium, and interventions whereas indirect causes are from the worsening of current conditions by pregnancy or delivery (Givewell, 2009). This paper aims to examine the causes for maternal mortality in both developed and developing countries and will end with a proposal for government to ensure women are given reproductive health rights.

Rape is one of the most prominent possibilities as to why a woman would choose to terminate her pregnancy. Though it is a tough decision to make, it is possible to be faced with keeping the child or ending the life of the fetus. In some cases, women make the choice to end their pregnancy knowing how they might treat their child. The women is most likely to hate her rapist and may worry if they move forward with the pregnancy, they would project this hate onto the child because it reminds them of such a painful memory.According to Rachel Perry, “One percent of women in a cross-sectional study of women's reasons for choosing abortion reported that their pregnancy had resulted from rape” (67-73). In addition to the pregnancy, the health consequences of rape can include physical injury, sexually transmitted disease, and mental health problems, including post-traumatic stress disorder and substance abuse.