Cell Wall Inhibition Lab Report

Drug therapy relies on the principle of selective toxicity, where the effects of the drug are only harmful towards the foreign parasite and not at all to the host. By comparing the effects of different drugs on various parasitic organisms we are able to distinguish the type of disease or infection that is present as well as the mechanism of action that takes place by each drug in question. The drugs may function by interacting with enzymes such as transpeptidase and thymidylate synthetase, for example Penicillin and 5-FU function respectively. The effectiveness can be quantified by measuring the zones of inhibition created by the drug on the plate of the bacteria or fungus. This is the area where there is no growth due to the action of the drug. The discovery that the Micrococcus-luteus is classed as a bacteria was made apparent due to Penicillin’s success in inhibiting it’s growth. The action of the Amphotericin solely on the Pythium, gives reason to believe that it can be grouped with fungal growths.

We began the experiment with conducting a Gram Stain to be able to differentiate if our organism is gram negative or gram positive. The Gram Stain also allows to determine the size of the cell, the cell’s morphology, and arrangement of the cell. Gram negative cells have a LPS outer layer and an inner thin peptidoglycan layer and the gram-positive cells have a

mechanism. Penicillin uses a ß-lactam ring as a substrate to clog the active site of

Penicillin inhibits the enzyme that is the cross link of pepitogylcin within the cell wall. This destroys the cell wall and exposes the inside of the cell to the external environment causing cell lysis. Penicillin is effective against gram-positive for this reason because of their thick cell walls that are full of pepitogylcin, as well as staphylococci and streptococci due to cell structure. Unfortunately, many bacteria strains have built resistance to Penicillin due to excessive use.

Choice “A” is not the best answer. β-lactamase is anThe enzyme β-lactamase that hydrolyzes the β-lactam ring of penicillin, hence conferring antibiotic resistance to bacteria that secrete it. Clavulanic acid is an antibiotic that inactivates β-lactamase hence overcoming antibiotic resistance. It is given along with amoxicillin, not alone.

Two main mechanisms are responsible for resistance to aminopenicillins: enzymatic hydrolysis of the antibiotic and a change in penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs). The more frequent is the production of β-lactamase, usually of the TEM-1 type but sometimes of the ROB-1 type [2]. The incidence of strains producing β-lactamase is particularly high in many countries [3;

Infections and illnesses that were once fatal could now be easily treated with Penicillin (Eickhoff 1). Before the antibiotic boom, people’s lives succumbed to infections and diseases while in the 21st century a simple antibiotic and rest could cure within a couple of days. From the beginning of time disease and infection consumed people's thoughts and fears. They were sickened by the thought of ever catching a horrendous illness. Every cold and cough could their last, but because of penicillin and antibiotics, people of today are not frightened for their lives over a slight fever. One Patient with Ludwig’s angina on the floor of her mouth could barely breathe. Usual patients would suffocate but with the aid of Penicillin, she could breathe again within a 36 hour period (Koop 1). Once again proving the potency of the miraculous drug. Moreover, “the technologies developed for the production of penicillin, including both microbial strain selection and improvement plus chemical engineering methods responsible for successful submerged fermentation production. These became the basis for production of all subsequent antibiotics in use today (Demain 1)”. Penicillin is perhaps one of the greatest things to happen to the world. It has prolonged so many lives by not only as a drug but as jumpstarting the technology and machinery for the ever evolving world of health and medicine. Penicillin is one of the

Gram negative cell walls have a very different and somewhat more complex set up compared to a gram positive wall. For instance, the peptidoglycan is one single layer and is surrounded by an outer membrane that is slightly similar to the cell membrane. One of the unique differences in the outer membrane is that it contains lipopolysaccharides and lipoproteins.

The advent of penicillin forever changed the world of medicine at its discovery with its ability to treat diseases, deadly at the time, that are now considered commonplace and easily treatable. Penicillin was one of the greatest discoveries of the twentieth century, as antibiotics are one of the most highly prescribed drugs in the world today. Although its discovery is often described as serendipitous, the process by which it was cultivated was quite meticulous, and continued attention has been paid to penicillin's further development. It is because penicillin and its derivatives have played such a vital role in everyday medicine that it is such an important topic.

I chose the cell wall for my essay. I chose the cell wall because the cell wall supports the cell and protects the cell.If the cell wall wasn’t there the cell would have no structure that would be like us with nohelloo bones.One cool thing about the cell wall is you can only find the cell wall in a plant cell.

How do β-lactam antibiotics work to fight against gram-positive bacteria? Transpeptidases are known for being sensitive to penicillin because their activity is inhibited by beta-lactam antibiotics. Transpeptidase is an enzyme that catalyzes the transpeptidation reaction (“Transpeptidase”). Transpeptidation, the chemical reaction conversion amino acid residue or a peptide residue is transferred from one amino compound to another (“Transpeptidation”). Once penicillin binds the PBP it is resilient to many forms of detachment, but can be removed by destroying the PBP through high

Resistance to β-lactams is easy for bacteria as all β-lactams shared the same mode of action, which is the inhibition of bacterial cell wall synthesis by forming stable covalent adducts with the active site serine residues of penicillin binding proteins (PBPs). The PBPS are often divided into two partitions; the high molecular weight PBPs (HMW-PBPs) and the low-molecular weight PBPs (LMW-PBPs). The HMW-PBPs are further divided in two classes, A and B, while the LMW-PBPs are divided in four subclasses based on their tertiary structures. Figure 2 shows the reactions between natural substrates, β lactams and transition state analogs with the

Since the discovery of penicillin in 1928 many discipline’s, including medicinal chemistry, have worked on natural antibiotics and the rise of bacterial resistance to them. In the last 15 years medicinal chemistry has worked to combat the challenges of bacterial resistance that has emerged in the form of efflux pumps, degradation enzymes and/or modification of targets. Advancements in structure determination has given a larger number of high resolution structures for bacterial proteins that can be run in structure-based drug design programs. High-throughput screening (HTS) has advanced so that hit to lead compounds also have cellular activity, although this is predominantly giving output for Gram-positive bacterial targets. Difficulties lie in fully understanding the mechanism of action and permeation of new drugs. However, new understanding of translocation proteins, such as porins, has meant that new drugs have been designed for homologous uptake channels or modified to be recognised by different bacterial uptake pathways. Recent research has also worked to alter the mechanism of action of older antibiotics by administering them with non-antimicrobial drugs that have synergistic or additive effects, which may be a longer term solution that limits the emergence of resistance to new drugs and extend the effective lifetime of antibacterials

The strains of K. pneumonia, K. oxytoca, and E. coli that produce ESBLs are resistant to beta-lactam antibiotics, which includes penicillin, cephalosporin, and aztreonam. Penicillin is used to eliminate a wide range of bacterial infections. Cephalosporin is used to treat bacterial infections, such as respiratory tract infections, skin infections, and urinary tract infections. Aztreonam is used to treat severe bacterial infections of the urinary tract, respiratory tract, skin, stomach, female reproductive organs, and other body systems. The areas that these medications are used to treat also happen to be the areas most commonly affected by the three prominent ESBL producing microorganisms.

The gram negative and gram positive bacterias are comparable in many different aspects. Both the gram negative and positive are located on the inner most plasma membrane, however the gram positive attains a thick peptidoglycan cell wall while the gram negative has a think cell wall. The outer membrane for the gram positive bacteria is absent, however the the gram negative has an outer membrane made up of lipo polysaccharide and contains a present protein. The gram positive is also tougher to treat with antibiotics and stains a purple/violet while the gram negative stains a red/pink. The gram stains are simple methods used to identify types of infectious bacteria. Teichoic acid is present in the gram positive bacteria but absent in the negative bacteria. Lipid content is also very low in the gram positive in comparison to a fair amount of lipid in the outer membrane of the gram negative bacteria.