Central Nervous System Research Paper

In this day and age, drugs are being prescribed without hesitation. In fact, many of these drugs are being prescribed for children with various disorders. One of these disorders is called Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). An estimated five to ten percent of children are diagnosed with this syndrome (Taylor 11). One of the methods to treat this disorder is to use stimulants, specifically Ritalin. This method is controversial because it has many side effects and its long-term effects are unknown. It can also lead to addiction. Approximately two to three percent of elementary school children are taking some kind of stimulant to treat ADHD (Taylor 64). Since so many children are taking this medication, new problems have arisen.

These medications have evolved and changed due to availability in the past few years. Cost has also had an impact on what medications are available to a dying patient. A patient self-administers an oral liquid suspension or a powdered mixed with a soft food such as applesauce. The mix of medications include barbiturates, chloral hydrate, and morphine which are compounded into a single dose prescription to facilitate death. Premedication is required prior to taking this final dose. The most common barbiturates are phenobarbital, pentobarbital or secobarbital. Phenobarbital is the longest acting and is typically used for seizures. Pentobarbital and secobarbital are used to sedate prior to surgery and are not as long acting as phenobarbital. Barbiturates effect the central nervous system. They are classified by their how long they take to effect and their duration of action. Barbiturates increase GABA (gaba amino-butyric acid) neurotransmissions in the brain. The increase in GABA causes drowsiness. They are highly addictive, and patients may become tolerant. The addiction is not an issue when a patient has reached this stage and does not need to be a concern. More importantly, if they have used them during the disease process as a sleep aid the patient may have built a tolerance and would require a higher dosage to be effective. Barbiturates do not provide pain relief, to provide pain relief a patient would need to reach a dose high enough to cause a comatose state. Chloral hydrate is a sleep aid or tranquilizer prior to surgery. This medication is quick

American physicians begin to use cocaine in medical practices. Cocaine was identified as a drug that depresses the central nervous system; however it had the exact opposite affect. The only general anesthetics available to physicians were chloroform and ether. These anesthetics would induce retching or vomit and did little for pain. Operations that required precision and detail

The availability of prescription painkillers has increased substantially, painkillers are drugs that deal with the nervous system, it blocks pain and the patient will feel a “high”. The most common prescribed drugs

MEDICATIONS: Any use of diuretics, pain medications, antiarrhythmic agents, anti-seizure drugs, sedatives, antibiotics, antihistamines, barbiturates, cephalosporins, salicylates, and sulfonamides?(Ross & Basello, 2003)

Opioids used for moderate-to-severe pain are morphine, hydromorphone, and fentanyl. Morphine is generally used in a clinical setting via intravenously (IV) or intramuscular injections (IM) after surgeries for pain management, trauma pain or in cancer patients. It is not used for individual with head trauma due to its sedative side effect. Hydromorphone is used for patients that have a negative reaction to morphine or if the morphine is not giving adequate pain relief (Curry III & Fausel, 2011, p. 28). Fentanyl, which are transdermal patches, are used for individuals with cancer who experience breakthrough pain and for those individual who are unable to take pain medication orally or via IV. Side effects include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, constipation, sedation, drowsiness, confusion, respiratory depression or arrest, hypotension and death.

Whoever consumes stimulants triggers hostility, aggressiveness, anxiety, paranoia, and depression. Depending on the person, their mood may transition from time to time. Stimulants for ADD/ADHD should not be taken by people with heart conditions, hypertension, hyperthyroidism, anxiety, glaucoma, or a past of drug abuse. Stimulant abuse is the main reason why stimulants should not be consumed by just any person of choice without a review of their medical history. Medications seem to be non-effective in the beginning. According to Strattera, “side effects of Strattera include: upset stomach, decreased appetite, nausea or vomiting, dizziness, tiredness, and mood swings.” The main concern is the connection between Strattera and the brain. It has been shown in scientific study that Strattera causes the person to have suicidal thoughts. Non-stimulants are next in line if Stimulants have not proven to be efficient or has severe side effects. The Methylphenidate Stimulants class contains the following drugs: Focalin, Methylin, Ritalin, Metadate ER, Methylin ER, Ritalin SR, Metadate CD, Ritalin LA, Concerta, Quillivant XR, Focalin XR, and Daytrana patch. The short-acting drugs of this class are Focalin, Methylin, and Ritalin. Because these medications are short-acting, frequent dosage is essential to manipulate the symptoms of ADHD. Focalin only lasts in a person’s system for 4-6 hours. Methylin and Ritalin only last for 3-4 hours. They all have the common side effects of appetite loss, weight loss, difficulty sleeping, and irritability. There is a high concern that if children and adolescents consume Ritalin, their brain may abnormally develop. The intermediate-acting medications of this class include Metadate ER, Methylin ER, Ritalin SR, Metadate CD, and Ritalin LA. Metadate ER and Methylin ER last for 6-8 hours, while Ritalin SR lasts for 4-8 hours. Metadate CD and Ritalin LA last a

is known about the mechanisms of the CNS. This review focuses on the Peripheral Nerve Injury and

There are many different ways and techniques to help and treat this condition. Certain medications are given by the doctor, but can vary for each patient. Small doses are given, then if the doctor thinks they should be increased they can be within time. Side effects like weight gain, fatigue or muscular rigidity can occur while taking the certain medication subscribed by the doctor (“Brain”). Different Treatment techniques can vary depending on the condition's level of

The central nervous system is composed of our spinal cord and brain which consistently controls our mind and behavior. The complexity of our brain is not entirely deciphered, but with extensive scientific research it can be concluded that each specific section has its own specialized function. In reference to eating pizza, socializing, and playing a game of cards, it can be deduced that our central nervous system is always critically analyzing data using our Broca’s area for speech, hippocampus for memories, hypothalamus controlling internal body, and occipital lobe organizing visual stimuli.

The most common types of medication used by patients with ADHD are stimulants such as methylphenidate and amphetamines and non-stimulant medication such as atomoxetine, clonidine, and guanfacine (Kovshoff, 2013). Subjects with ADHD use stimulant medication because some have under activated brains due to lack of grey matter. Stimulants enhance the cognitive ability of subjects with the disease by energizing the brain via augmenting the effects and number of various neurotransmitters, which increases the efficiency of neural cells communication (Kovshoff, 2013). The neurotransmitter specifically increased in quantity and effect is dopamine, which is the neurotransmitter of emotion, movement, and attention (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2014). With increased communication in the brain, the more receptive it is to outside information thus making up for the ADHD symptom of inattentiveness. Non-stimulant medication calm down a patient by affecting the receptors between neural cells and regulating the neurotransmitter norepinephrine (Kovshoff, 2013). The neurotransmitter norepinephrine is involved in alertness, so the effect on the brain receptors and the regulation of norepinephrine cause ADHD patients to be less hyperactive and more attentive (Kovshoff, 2013). Both types of medication do

Although, MS only affects the central nervous system, myelin can be located in both the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. All neurons consist of an axon and a cell body. Most of the axons in the CNS are wrapped in myelin, which is rich in proteins. Similar to coating around an electrical wire, myelin lines and protects the axon and assist in speeding nerve transmission. In the nervous system, neurons are the structures that allow us to feel, see, think, speak, hear, and move. Ultimately with MS, inflammation in the central nervous system is produced and this process destroys and damages myelin and oligodendrocytes. The action potential is a discharge between a neuron and everything around it. It is part of the method

Autonomic Nervous System: Since the drug is expected to be administered systemically, it can have effects on all organ systems. To assess its

Dr Redd, There are two basic ways pain medicines work. They either stop the pain signals from going to the brain or they alter the brain’s interpretation of the signals. Analgesics, such as acetaminophen, prevent the signals from reaching the brain. Narcotics, opioids from the poppy or narcotics synthesized by man, attach to protein opioid receptors in the brain or spinal cord to alter the perception or interpretation of signals to the brain. In the case of anesthetics, some increase Cl- in receptors to lessen the nerves ability to fire and others increase Na+ to reduce the action potential of the nerves.

Ketamine is a drug used in human and veterinary medicine practices. It is most commonly used for general anesthesia. It is commonly used along with a sedative. Other uses include sedation in intensive care and emergency situations. Ketamine's actions interfere with pain transmission in the spinal cord. This helps prevent the feeling of pain, but it does not last long.