Chromatin Influences

On the molecular level, the DNA is remarkably long, if it were to be stretched end to end it would reach a length up to 6 feet, yet it is found in the minute sized organelles in the cells of organisms. Accordingly, despite its length, the DNA is wound around a spool-like proteins, called histones. Histones allow the DNA to be tightly wrapped enough to fit inside the

Evidence has shown that epigenetic can be changed to terminate the bad genes. This change can give the hopeful chance to end obesity, cancer, Alzheimer, etc. Epigenetic processes control normal growth and development to fight off abnormal diseases in the body, research on processes such as methylation, acetylation, phosphorylation, ubiquitylation and sumolyation have been discovered to reverse genes. DNA methylation is the process of modifying the genes and is used in reprogramming many diseases including tumor process. Acetylation works to increase the expression of genes through transcription activation plus alters the chromatin. Phosphorylation is necessary for protein function which controls enzymes. Ubiquitylation is also a protein found in tissue that can affect protein deficiency. Sumolyation is very similar to the ubiquitylation cycle that deals with protein and cells, it does not break down the protein like ubiquitylation, instead it plays the role of regulating the cell process. The most common ways of processing with science and technology today is DNA methylation and chromatin

• DNA (A74): A chemical that contains information for an organism's growth and functions. • Cell Cycle (A80): Normal sequence of development and division of a cell. • Chromosome (A75): DNA is wrapped around proteins like thread around a spool and compacted into structures called chromosomes.

More importantly, epigenetics uncovers specific chemical reactions and their impact on genome and, therefore, cell response on those chemical reactions. The understanding of chemical reactions and genome activation and deactivation are extremely important for the understanding of fundamental principles of the development of living beings and their functioning in the course of their

Since the discovery of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, began a persistent controversy: what determines the health and longevity of an individual?, the genes with which they are born or the environment in which it develops? To enrich the discussion, in recent years evidence has been presented that

Studies have shown that our ancestors experience’s may leave a mark on our genes. Geneticists were surprised to find that epigenetic change could be passed down from parent to child. A study from Randy Jirtle of Duke University showed that when female mice are fed a diet rich in methyl groups, the fur pigment of subsequent offspring is permanently altered without changing the DNA. Madrid, Szyf and Meaney considered a hypothesis: “If diet and chemicals can cause epigenetic changes, could certain experiences — child neglect, drug abuse or other severe stresses — also set off epigenetic changes to the DNA inside the neurons of a person’s brain?” This study states that the biology of DNA will stay the same how ever psychological and behavioral tendencies are inherited.

The first stage is chromatin modification. Usually, genes within heterochromatin are not expressed since it is so compact and dense. Chemical modifications to histones influence whether the chromatin is condense or not. For example, histone acetylation promotes transcription by opening up the chromatin structure. In contrast, DNA methylation reduces transcription by the addition of methyl groups, leading to condensation. Individual genes as well as long segments of the DNA can be heavily methylated in cells, preventing them from being expressed. Methylation patters can be inherited however, unlike mutations, they can be reversed.

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is found in nearly every single one of the 75 trillion cells that made the human body. Chromosomes are made up of protein and DNA molecules. An in-depth look at these threadlike strands reveals what scientist’s calls the double helix. This large, double-stranded molecule resembles a

Since this is the only part of the histone protein which exists in an uncoiled state, it is subjected to far more modifications than the core proteins. Structurally, the H1 proteins exhibits a much longer C-terminal domain as compared to its N-terminal domain surrounding a highly conserved central globular domain. This C-terminal domain is arranged as a β hairpin motif associated with three α helices. The C-terminal is lined with Lysine residues with alternating Alanine residues. The amino acid constitution of the N and C terminals of this linker histone is detrimental for chromatin folding. The N-terminal region is composed of hydrophobic residues and the globular domain is made up of mostly basic amino acids; however the exact composition still remains to be characterized. Research has revealed the C-terminal domain by itself is able to bring about an efficient amount of chromatin fiber folding as the native H1 protein. Phosphorylation of this linker histone protein is the most studied post translational modification. Research has brought forward numerous examples of cross-talk found to be essential for regulation of this protein. Acetylation of Lysine at position 34 by HAT enzyme has been proven to be associated with activation of DNA

1 G banding techniques enhances the basic structures of chromosomes. The chromosomes consists of 8 histones proteins molecules , each of which is wrapped around by DNA of 146bp long to form a repeating units called nucleosomes, then successive nucleosomes are arranged to form a structure similar to that of beads of a string which again coil themselves to form chromatin fiber. Chromosome package is form when chromatin fiber are further loop and coiled.

Chromatin- a collection of separate structures called Chromosomes. Within the nucleus the DNA is organized along with proteins into Chromatin. During Mitosis, the chromosomes condense into what is known as Chromosomes, which allows the genetic information of the previous cell to be passed on.

 Risk assessment  Prevention  Progression analysis  Prognosis and biomarker development Epigenetics ~ is the term coined to explain a variety of “bizarre” phenotypic phenomena in different organisms that can’t be elucidated by Mendelian Genetics. It is like a bridge between geno and phenotypes ~ giving explanation to how cells carrying identical DNA differentiate into different cell types and how this differentiated state remains stable;

In complex organisms, cells undergo a process of differentiation where genes not necessary for the functioning of a particular cell are turned off. The unique differentiated state of a cell depends on its particular combination of regulatory proteins2. While cells may differentiate to perform a number of different functions, each cell still contains the entire DNA sequence necessary to become any kind of cell. The general consensus was that all embryo cells hold the potential to become any type of cell, but older fetal and adult cells could only express the genes that have already been turned on3. Until recently many scientists believed that once a cell differentiates, it is forever specialized

Figure 4. Overview of possible epigenetic modifications. These epigenetic modifications can all influence the accessibility of the chromatin structure to the transcriptional machinery. This image was taken from a previous publication (Gräff et al., 2011).

which is found inside the nucleus of most living cells carrying genetic information in form of the gene. The structure of the chromosome is sort of like an X structure. The middle of the X is called the centromere and divides into 2 sections or arms. The short arm of the chromosome is labeled as the “palm”, the longer arm is labeled as the “q arm”. It’s made up of DNA tightly colliding together many times around proteins called histones and that’s what supports the structure. There are 20,000 - 25,000 protein coding genes on every single chromosome, humans normally have 46 chromosomes in each cell that are divided into 23 pairs. There are 2 copies of chromosome 8, one copy gets inherited from each of the parents to form one of the pairs.