Conditioned Emotional Response

Classical conditioning is a form of learning that is taught to us through experiences we encounter in our lives. It involves outside stimuli to trigger the condition we have learned to expect. For example, the sound of a lunch bell would trigger our stomach to start growling soon after hearing the bell ring. The expectation of food to come soon after hearing the bell and satisfy our hunger is what makes our stomach growl. This is something learned over time. Expectations can be both good and bad. Sometimes these negative experiences cause us to have certain behaviors when we are reminded of such an event.

Classical conditioning is the relationship of an automatic response with a neutral occurrence. There are many main components to classical conditioning. Acquisition which is the learning part of classical conditioning where the conditioned stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus. An unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that instinctively causes a response. An unconditioned response is the response to the unconditioned stimulus that the researcher will document. A Neutral stimulus is a stimulus that may not get a response initially however after time, develops an instinctive response. A conditioned stimulus is a neutral stimulus after is has taught the response by training based on the conditioning. A conditioned response is the response to the conditioned stimulus. Extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination are all a part of the classical conditioning process (Nevid,

In an experiment called "Little Albert" by psychologist John B. Watson, an infant named Albert was conditioned to fear white rats. He was repeatedly exposed to white rats and was taught fear response to these furry animals which wouldn’t otherwise occur naturally. Although this wouldn’t have been what Albert wanted to perceive as part of his reality, he became extremely distressed whenever he saw a white rat and it was out of his control to

Little Albert an 11 month old boy was chosen as the participant. Watson identified that a white rat did not provoke any fear response in Albert, so it was a neutral stimulus. Little Albert was then exposed to the white rat, but every time he reached out to touch it Watson would make a loud noise. Albert would get frightened and start to cry. After repeating this several times, Albert started getting frightened just by seeing the rat. Just like the bell in Pavlov's experiment, the white rat had become a conditioned stimulus to Albert. Watson therefore concluded that even complex behaviour such as fear was a learned response.

Dollard and Miller suggested that classical conditioning can be used to show how babies learn to associate a particular stimuli, with a response. They implied that before attachment is formed, classical conditioning begin with an infant gaining pleasure through being fed. When the infant is fed, he associates with the primary caregiver providing him food. Over time, the infant will gain pleasure from the primary caregiver. The primary caregiver will eventually become a conditioned stimuli and pleasure will become a conditioned response. This is when the infant has learnt that the feeder provides pleasure. Soon after, attachment will be learned and

​In Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird, Scout Finch, and her brother Jem, learn the importance of seeing things through other people's eyes. At the beginning of the story, the people living in Maycomb County, can be considered "mockingbirds" because they are innocent. Their father, Atticus, leads as a strong example while defending Tom Robinson, a black man convicted for rape. The residents of Maycomb (besides the Finches) fail to see situations through other people's eyes. For example, when the trial takes place, most people do not have empathy toward Tom Robinson, resulting in some of those "mockingbirds" becoming killed. Trying to see situations through other people's eyes can keep someone from hurting somebody who is innocent.

Classical conditioning says that we learn behaviours by associating the response to the stimulus. An example of this can be found from the work of Ivan Pavlov. In the 1890s Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, carried out some experiments with a dogs. He noticed that when a dog eats food, they salivate: this is an unconditional response to an

To begin the experiment, Watson and his team started off by questioning if a loud noise would cause a fear reaction. The sound of choice for this part would be a hammer on a suspended steel bar. The first strike of the bar startled the

Behaviourists use two types of processes to explain how people learn: classical conditioning (Ivan Pavlov) and operant conditioning (Frederic Skinner).In classic conditioning, individuals learn to associate stimuli when they occur together to a response. Therefore individuals learn to produce an existing response to a stimulus that is presented. Take for instance little Albert. The little boy that was classically conditioned to respond with anxiety to the stimulus of a white ray by Watson and Rayner.

According to the textbook, respondent behaviors are behaviors elicited by prior stimuli and are not affected by their consequences. In other words, respondent behaviors are one’s innate responses to certain situations that they do not have to be taught. These behaviors are not a result of consequences, but are more enacted based on one’s natural reflexes. Tears forming in an individual’s eyes when something sad or tragic occurs is an example of a respondent behavior. Laughing while being tickled is also an example of a respondent behavior.

For the second stage, a white rat was used as Watson’s CS, the CS must be a neutral stimulus that initially has no effect on the UR. Little Albert showed no phobia towards the rat before conditioning occurred. By pairing the US with the CS, the infant learned to associate the loud noise of the hammer and metal bar with the white rat. After strengthening the association between the US and the CS by repetition, Little Albert eventually became fearful and upset when only presented with the once neutral stimulus, the white rat. This response was the CR which marked the completion of step three. Little Albert was now afraid of the white rat because it triggered his fear of the loud noise. Classical conditioning can be used to prove many forms of behavior between subjects when looking at the the right unconditioned/ conditioned stimuli and unconditioned/ conditioned responses. The theory of classical conditioning can be used to explain the development of distrust and trust issues in the relationships between people.

It occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together, one being an unlearned stimulus and the other a neutral stimulus. The neutral stimuli eventually will produce the same reaction as the unlearned stimuli. Ivan Pavlov had been investigating the saliva reactions in dogs. He conducted a study where he noticed that dogs salivated not only when food was placed in their mouths but also when stimuli associated with the food (a bell) was presented. Pavlov identified that the dogs had formed an association between the two stimuli, that it was an example of classical conditioning. A problem with this study was the fact that we can not generalize it to humans. Watson and Rayner rectified this in a later study using a young boy named Little Albert. At the age of nine months old, Little Albert was showed a variety of stimuli including a white rat, a monkey, a rabbit and burning newspapers. Watson and Rayner observed the boys’ reaction to the stimuli and found he showed no fear in relation to them. The next time Albert was exposed to the rat the researched made a loud, unpleasant noise which made Albert cry. Eventually, Albert would cry just in the presence of the rat. After this observation ‘Watson and Rayner wrote "The instant the rat was shown, the baby began to cry. Almost instantly he turned sharply to the left, fell over on [his] left side, raised himself on all fours and began to crawl away so rapidly that he was

Classic Conditioning can also be known as stimulus response, conditioned response, respondent condition as these are the behaviors that take place during the Classical Conditioning. There are two basic forms of associative conditioning, classical and operant. Both Ivan Pavlov and John Watson were the first contributors to these behaviorist theories. Ivan Pavlov’s theory came about by working a dog and John Watson worked his classical conditioning with humans.

The history of America is mirrored in American Literature. The American dream, the idea of equality and being able to achieve anything you wanted, meant that millions of immigrants moved to America. America claims to be a country which enables everyone to have equality and freedom however in the texts we can see it is rather a Capitalist and individualist country. The paradox of America can be seen through the fact that the Statue called freedom was built by slaves. The inequality can also be seen through the experience of individuals such as Abraham Lincoln who was assassinated for trying to abolish slavery. The reflection of America through texts such as ‘The Great Gatsby’, ‘A Streetcar Named Desire’ and the poems of Sylvia Plath shows the tragic face of America, in which ‘representatives of the upper class are engaged in acts of egotism, self-aggrandizement, and heartlessness.’ In these texts, the American Dream is different for each character as it varies from having money to being a perfect wife or mother. Underneath the concept of the American dream lays America’s reality of a harsh world which proves that not many can have the American Dream but rather their dreams will turn into their nightmare as they live in a country based on Darwin’s idea of ‘Survival of the fittest’. These texts show that those who accept what they have are able to achieve their dream however those who want everything and strive to have everything find that their dream turns into a nightmare

Exact optimisation method is the optimisation method that can guarantee to find all optimal solutions. In principle, the optimality of generated solution can be proofed mathematically. Therefore, exact optimisation is also termed as mathematical optimisation. However, exact optimisation approach is impractical usually. The effort of solving an optimisation problem by exact optimisation grows polynomially with the problem size. For example, to solve a problem by brute force approach, the execution time increases exponentially respect to the dimensions of the problem.