Counter Regulatory Hormones

The blood glucose level has very limited range for humans to survive and stay healthy. Generally, people are able to remove excess glucose rapidly from the body but this is not the case when they are diagnosed with diabetes and insulin resistant situations. The lack of insulin resistance can also lead to a decrease in glycogen synthesis and storage as it usually converts glucose to energy for cell’s use (Jensen & et al. 2011). When insulin is produced under insulin resistance, the cells are incapable of using them effectively which then leads to high blood sugar level as ketones and ketoacids are produced as an alternative energy source for the body. The rise of ketoacid causes the blood pH acidic and the patient may also be diagnosed with ketoacidosis (Newton & Raskin 2004). There would also be less intake of lipid and more of stored triglycerides as the lipids are effected by the insulin. As the glucose levels increase, the muscle glucose uptake will decrease while the liver glucose production and blood fatty acid concentration will also increase within the body (Lichtenstein & Schwab 2000). Excess glucose within the blood are converted to fat which can lead to Diabetic Dyslipidaemia and furthermore to obesity, hypertension and

Insulin Resistance and Type 2 Diabetes – cirrhosis causes resistance to insulin. This hormone, produced by the pancreas, enables blood glucose to be used as energy by the cells of the body. If you have insulin resistance, your muscle, fat, and liver cells do not use insulin properly. The pancreas tries to keep up with the demand for insulin by producing more. Eventually, the pancreas cannot keep up with the body's need for insulin, and Type 2 diabetes develops as excess glucose builds up in the bloodstream.

Classic symptoms of diabetes usually presented with newly diagnosed diabetics are: hyperglycaemia, polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia, fatigue, blurred vision, headaches, and unexplained weight loss. Ketone bodies are found in the urine, this abnormal finding occurs when fatty acid by-products (acetones) are excreted in the urine. The ketones are present from a lack of the insulin hormone used to metabolize fats and carbohydrates. Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a life-threatening complication which results from minimal useful insulin hormone in the body, hypoglycaemia, or insufficient food intake (American Diabetes Association, 2008).

The concentration of β-hydroxybutyrate within the blood, as it is confirmation of ketoacidosis. The correction of hyperglycaemia and the suppression of ketone production can be reduced with insulin therapy.

Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) DKA and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic syndrome (HHS) occurs in 20 % of the elderly who have not previously been diagnosed with diabetes. HHS is more often found in the elderly, being precipitated by an acute illness or drug therapy (Childs, Cypress, & Spollett, 2009). DKA and HHS, are both similar in the aspect for a decrease in the effective concentration of insulin in conjunction with the counter regulatory hormones glucagon, cortisol, growth hormone and epinephrine. However, DKA and HHS differed in the driving force, degree of insulin deficiency, serum glucose levels, pH, serum osmolality and duration of symptoms (Childs, Cypress, & Spollett, 2009).

They speak bitterly about politics and morality and what may seem like a trivial matter can be what sends shrapnel tearing at the heart of social media. In this case, the subject at hand deals with something as inconsequential as a school’s dress code policy, but is being broken down into something as wicked as teaching a child superheroes are no better than the villain. The author, Jonah Goldberg, gives an effective argument as to why the mere fact of superheroes engaging in battle doesn’t mean they should be condemned.

This research has the potential to help many people with behavioral and social issues. With the correlation of specific hormones to certain actions, the possibilities of hormone therapy are endless. If we could treat the hormone that excites aggression, anger could be managed more easily and violent crimes could be reduced. Hormones associated with the mother-infant bond, and post-partum depression could help overcome the struggles that new mothers face after child-birth. Furthermore, post-partum depression might be entirely prevented. This could in turn decrease the the numbers of neglected and abused children; thus resulting in the evolution of more balanced adults.

Diabetic coma (needs insulin) – pulse will be weak/rapid. Breathing will be deep/sighing. Skin will be flushed, dry, and warm. Breath odor will be like musty apple or nail polish. LOC will be gradual onset of unconsciousness. The person may be

In Ketoacidosis the body is making too many ketones due to fats being burned for absent carbohydrates as source of energy, excessive amount of fats in the body become acidic creating the ketones. Possible cause are diabetics not receiving proper insulin and hydration, excessive alcohol drinking with low po intake, as well as anoxia. The patient have the following signs and symptoms tachypnea, tachycardia, HA, confusion, tired or weakness, loss in appetite, and or N/V. Treatment is to correct the imbalance or the underlying cause of the imbalance ie hydration fluids, Insulin

J.D. is a 16-year-old female with a medical history of Type 1 Diabetes. She presents to the Emergency Department, complaining of vomiting, excessive thirst, confusion and shortness of breath. Her mother states J.D. had been throwing up all night and was confused this morning, so her mother took her blood sugar and it was 380 mg/dL. At that point, her mother immediately brought her to the Emergency Department. At the ED, her blood sugar was taken again and it was 492mg/dL, her urine was checked and was positive for ketones, and her breath had a fruity scent. Arterial blood gases were drawn and showed metabolic acidosis. At this point the Emergency Room MD diagnosed her with Diabetic Ketoacidosis.

Endocrine disruptors are chemicals that can interfere with our endocrine system in our bodies. These chemicals can mimic hormones that occur naturally and can create sever health issues, parental and postnatal development problems for children and can endanger us and wildlife. Endocrine disruptors bind to cells and therefore does not allow the natural hormone to bind properly to the cell. The hormone’s signal cannot occur which means that the body is not able to respond to the signal. They can also prevent the making and the control of the hormones and their receptors by changing their metabolism.

When focusing on the liver, the main pathogenic anomaly responsible for the body’s hyperglycemia in DKA is the increased hepatic glucose production. In a controlled diabetic state or a non-diabetic insulin promotes storage and synthetic pathways in the liver such as glycogenesis and lipolysis (McKenna, Sanders & Sanders, 2012). The absence of insulin triggers the hormones (See Figure 2.) to increase and glucagon becomes the primary source for running the carbohydrate metabolism (Management of DKA arcticle). Catecholaines and glucagon fuel glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis (is this relevant??). The decreased peripheral glucose uptake and the increase of hepatic glucose production are contributors to the hyperglycaemic state commonly associated and seen with DKA patients (Management of DKA arcticle). *** Fatty acid oxidation and ketone paragraph***. Focusing now on the adipose tissue of the patient. In the presence of insulin the lipoprotein lipase catabolizes lipoprotein into triglycerides thus allowing the transformation of triglycerides into fat cells (Management of DKA arcticle) (Curtis, Ramsden & Lord, 2011). In the absence of insulin tissue lipase activity is increased which results in the release of fatty acids and glycerol into the bloodstream. Furthermore catecholamines bind to

Insulin resistance takes place when there is a reduction in the sensitivity of the body to insulin. As a compensatory mechanism, the pancreatic Beta cell to produce more insulin (12, 13, 14). It may cause the Beta cell to overwork and eventually weakens. As a result, it cannot produce adequate insulin for the body and leads to the development of type II diabetes (12). In the absence of insulin, there will be an increase in fatty acids (12).

In type 1 diabetes the insulin producing beta cells are destroyed and therefore are unable to respond to an increase in blood glucose. The white blood cells of the immune system incorrectly identify the beta cells as foreign cells and begin an autoimmune response. Auto antibodies are produced in attempt to protect the body from foreign cell invasion, but instead destroy the beta cells.This causes little or no insulin to be secreted and BGL start to rise. As there is no insulin to bind to target cells such as the liver, muscle or fat cells to stimulate the uptake of glucose, the cells are unable to obtain sufficient amounts of energy to carry out their vital cellular functions. This triggers the release of glucagon, and gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis begin to allow the cells to gain the required amount of glucose. Deprived of energy the body begins to breakdown fat and protein by gluconeogenesis. This explains symptoms such as fatigue or hunger even though BGL continue to increase as alternative sources are metabolised for energy. Although, this may suffice for the metabolic demands of cells, build up of ketones which are a byproduct of fat breakdown in the blood, causes ketosis. If ketones in the blood continue to escalate and prolong, then a potentially fatal condition called diabetic ketoacidosis may result: Glucagon secretion stimulates the beta-oxidation of

Diabetic Ketoacidosis, also known as DKA or Diabetic acidosis, is an acute, major, and potentially life-threatening complication in people with diabetes. It can also lead to diabetic coma or even death if a person passed out for a long time. It happens more commonly in people with type I diabetes, aka diabetes insipidus, but it can also occur in people with type II diabetes, aka diabetes mellitus. It is also more common in African, African-American, and Hispanic people. Diabetic ketoacidosis occurs in 4.6-8.0 per 1000 people with type I diabetes annually. It occurs when your body has too much levels of blood acids called ketones. High level of ketones can poison the human body. The condition develops when a body is unable to get the sugar the body needs because the it is not producing enough insulin. Insulin plays a vital part in the metabolism of the body, it helps glucose enter the cells. If the body does not have sufficient insulin, the body starts to break down fats and muscles as fuel instead. This can lead to a buildup of ketones in the bloodstream, causing chemical imbalance called diabetic ketoacidosis if left untreated. Diabetic ketoacidosis is sometimes the first sign of type 1 diabetes in people who have never been diagnosed before. For people who have already been diagnosed with type 1 diabetes, a serious illness, surgery, infection, or not using insulin the proper way can lead to DKA. Diabetic ketoacidosis is a medical emergency that needs to be addressed