Cross-Sectional Research Vs. Longitudinal Research

Research on interviews has generally shown that standardized procedures are higher in their reliability and validity than unstructured interviews. Learning how structured

A structured interview can improve the process by asking the same questions to each candidate.

The interview consisted of 11 questions prepared in advance to help provide insight into the types

Phenomenological interview limitations may appear due to the researcher’s lack of experience in conducting interviews (Downey, 2015); which may interfere with the researcher’s focus and intentionality (Ashworth, 2017). Limitations may occur with the relationship between the researcher and the interviewee, including power struggles which might affect trust and honest participant reflections (Boucher, 2017). Further, time limitations could impede upon a participants deliberation process during the interview process (Downey, 2015). If a researcher is to understand the essence of a phenomenon; a suspension of judgment is required during participant interviews (Ashworth, 2017). Additionally, the researcher will need to be extremely attentive to experience the study through the participants’ eyes (Kelley, 2016). Individuals may choose not to answer every question, which is acceptable; yet, missing data can also become a limitation to the study. However, if enough participants do not answer the same question, the question might need to be reframed or removed; additionally, secondary data, such as technical reports, white papers or additional publications might be necessary to validate the research question (Johnston, 2014).

The present study concerns longitudinal research on bullying perpetration and peer victimization. A focus is on school factors of school climate and school identification which are conceptualized related but distinct constructs.

Unstructured interviews are not made up of prepared questions. The interviewer will ask more open questions about board topics and then use follow-up questions to gain more answers in further detail. This method of interview is time-consuming however it enables the interviewee to answer questions in more detail and depth. It is possible that audio-recordings can be

Face-to-face interviews will be interview guide approach where there will be an outline of topics and issues that the interviewer will cover with the participant (Babbie &Rubin, 1993). Having an outline it allows the researcher to compare responses between participants and it reduces the interviewer biases (Babbie & Rubin, 1993). An outline is constructed where it will guide the researcher with the participant from one concern to another but in a conversational approach (Babbie & Rubin, 1993). Moreover, a study without any set structure the researcher and participant can get side tracked and not answer the questions needed for the study research. The length of the interview will be approximately thirty minutes, but there will be no time restriction. The information will be recorded similar to a focus group, with a recording device and notes occasionally. Before analyzing the data, the researcher will examine his or her “own thoughts and feelings” because it’s a crucial process in understanding the participants (Babbie & Rubin, 1993, p.

In order to prove the theory that Masturbation causes gray hairs; A development research study needs to take place. This begins by determining which of the two basic developmental research designs that will be utilized; either a cross-sectional design or a Longitudinal Design ? Understanding, that longitudinal design allows for the study of the same participants, over multiple time points ; and considering that gray hairs don't show up over-night ; the best design would then be a Longitudinal Design . In addition, the design allows data to be measured over time, which in this case would be the number of gray hairs if any, that appear on our participants over the course of several years. Since we are measuring data

After the participants were chosen, then interviews were conducted using format open-ended questions. "… A qualitative interview approach was thought to be the best means of exploring expectations people had for the role" (Connelly et al., 2003, p. 299). Open-ended questions allow the participants to raise important issues that may not be addressed if there is a fixed sequence of questions. This is appropriate for a qualitative study.

If I were asked to enroll my child in a longitudinal study, then I would have to think long and hard about it. These studies have many different components to them that a parent may not want for their child, such as how long the study takes and how the child is tested. These studies last for a long period of time, for example page 43 in the textbook talks about a man named Lewis Terman who began a study 80 years ago and is still continuing today. I personally would not be interested in my child participating in an 80 plus year long study. I would also be interested in learning about the testing before I enrolled my child, such as how frequent, how hard, and how long the tests would be. I want my child to be able to live a normal life and

Questioning is the act of forming an inquiry and interpersonal communication to gain information which assist in making decisions. There are two common types of questions that are mostly used in an interviewing scenario, that is; closed and open questions. Closed questions are restrictive and require short answers .For instance, “Yes/ No “answers. The amount of information gained is limited while, open questions begin with “What, Why/ who?”They allow patients the freedom to talk about what they wish and invite an argument, long answers are required for these types of questions. (Stein-Parbury, 2009).

You can talk about age related differences, but you cannot show age related changes with a cross sectional studies. The old cross sectional studies tended to show that age related differences began early in adulthood and continued to be apparent later. But, we have a more contemporary view and it is a lot more positive. The notion is that while there are some age differences and decline, it is less extreme than initially reported. There is a difference between cross-sectional studies and longitudinal studies because:

Whereas a structured interview follows a standardised format, in an unstructured interview the interviewer has complete freedom to vary the interview. Supporters argue that this brings a number of important advantages. Such as, rapport and sensitivity, the interviewee's views are clearer, the ability to check understanding, flexibility and the ability for the interviewer to explore unfamiliar topics. However, there are multiple disadvantages to using unstructured interviews in sociological research. Such as, practical problems, which include, time and sample size, training, and interpersonal skills, there are also issues with representativeness, reliability, quantification and validity.

The proposed methodology is a primary qualitative approach of semi-structured interviews. This method has been chosen as the focus of this

Once a researcher has determined what exactly their study will consist of, they must now decide how the information will be analyzed. One of the most important factors to consider when deciding whether to utilize a longitudinal or cross-sectional method to retrieve data is how much time and how variables do you have to measure. The main difference between the two is that longitudinal studies are conducted over a period, and cross-sectional comparisons are made at a sole point in time. When initiating your study, it will be your research question that will dictate which method to use. Both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies can be looked at as observational studies, in which data is being recorded about participant without controlling the environment of the subjects.