Cytokines : Causes And Complications Of The Policiune System

Cytokinines are the one of the primary mediators that signal other cells to release additional mediators such as tumour necrosis factor-a (TNF-a) interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6, IL-8, interferon, leukotrienes, histamine, bradykinin, prostaglandins, thromboxane A2, serotonin, nitric oxide, arachidonic acid, platelet-activating factor (PAF), oxygen free radicals and myocardial depressant factor (Munford, 2001:67). If the invading organism is a gram negative bacterium, endotoxins are also released, which further stimulate the production of these inflammatory mediators (Jones & Bucher, 1999:134).

Eagleton (2012) explains the pathological process inflammation has in weakening the arterial wall through the release of cellular and cytokine messengers which initiate various actions

IL-2 has been extensively studied by the scientific community because of its known involvement in the immune regulation. Provided that it has known functions of the immune system, it can also be inferred and tried to discuss that it is more complex than simply recruiting all the cells needed to engage in the fight for the immune system.

Interleukins are a type of cytokines and play a vital role in nearly all aspects of inflammation and immunity. They were first seen to be expressed by leukocytes. Interleukin is a term that has been used to describe a group of cytokines with complex immunomodulatory functions – including maturation, cell proliferation, migration and adhesion. They also play an important role in immune cell differentiation and activation. Interleukins initiate a response by binding to like receptors located on the surface of cells; they function in an autocrine or paracrine fashion, rather than an endocrine signal, which is more common with steroidal and amino acid-derived and hormones. The response to these cytokines depends on several different factors such

The immune system is a series of cells, tissues, organs, and processes in the body that distinguishes between what the normal cell in the body and pathogens to fights infections, and develops immunity (LaPensee, 2008). In addition, the immune system is divided into innate immunity and acquired immunity, which they interact with each other to cause immune response in the human body to protect it from infections such as bacteria, fungi, and parasites. Not to mention, innate immunity is the first line of defense that has different component to protect the body such as, mechanical (coughing, sneezing, enzymes, mucous, stomach

CVD [27]. In this response, macrophages play an important role, through the production of proinflammatory

Due to complexity of cytokine interactions and the variety of cytokine targets, the influence and toxicity of cytokine-based interference are difficult to predict. Various cytokine-based strategies are being discovered for the treatment of inflammatory diseases which include the neutralization of cytokines, receptor blockade, and the stimulation of anti-inflammatory pathways by bioengineered trials of immune-regulatory cytokines

Studies have revealed that the P2X7 receptor may hold some of these answers (Ferrari et al. 1997), (Perregaux and Gabel, 1998). P2X7 is said to be a key mediator in the activation and secretion of the interleukin-1 family of cytokines. Perhaps the two most well established are the mechanisms involved with the maturation and release of IL-1β and IL-18. Muñoz-Planillo et al. (2013) suggests that rapid K+ efflux acts as a co-signal alongside activation of toll-like receptors via pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). These two signals combined are said to initiate the assembly of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Whilst the signal received through toll-like receptors is responsible for the synthesis of inflammasome components and inactive forms of IL-1β and IL-18, the second signal received through rapid K+ efflux influences the assembly of the inflammasome itself leading to the activation of caspase-1. Caspase-1 processes and activates pro-IL-1β and pro-IL-18

The inflammation process involves a complex array of enzyme activation, mediator release, fluid extravasations, cell migration, tissue breakdown and repair which are aimed at host defense and usually activated in most disease conditions (Turner., 1965 and Vane and Botting., 1995).

The immune system includes innate and adaptive immune responses. The innate immune system acts as the first line of defense to rapidly and nonspecifically respond to foreign pathogens. The adaptive or acquired immune system, however, responds to pathogens to create a long-term immunological memory. As a result, the adaptive immune system can initiate a heightened response to subsequent exposures to the same pathogen and provide a protective immunity. Leukocytes can be classified as neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils and mast cells, monocytes/macrophages, and

Inflammation is a normal, protective response to tissue injury caused by physical trauma, noxious chemicals or microbiological agents. There are mainly two types of inflammation which are as follows:

The immune system is a defence mechanism inbuilt in all living organisms comprised of specific biological processes and structures. Its purpose is to protect against disease using the networks of cells, tissues and organs that work cohesively for protection. In order to function correctly, the immune system must be able to detect and distinguish an expansive variety of pathogens that derive from harmful viruses, bacteria, protozoans, parasites etc. The immune system can be divided into subsystems including the adaptive immune system and the innate immune system, as well as act as part of a whole of the organisms’ body,

CCR6: located in the blood vessels, CCR6 will attract the cells of the endothelial tissue like TH17. TH17, with the help of IL-1 and IL-23 expand and lead to the production of IL-17 and CCL20 that proliferate inflammatory cells.

Interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase-4 (IRAK-4), a serine/threonine kinase, acts downstream of members of the Toll/IL-1 receptor family that are mediators in signal transduction. IRAK-4 shares the domain structure of the other IRAKs and is shown to activate similar signal transduction pathways, such as NF-jB and MAPK pathways.

“Inflammation is a nonspecific, defensive response of the body to tissue damage” says J.Tortora & Derrickson (2011), it is an effort