Diiodothyronin (T2)

The main function of the mitochondria is to convert fuel into a form of energy the cell can use. Specifically, the mitochondria is where pyruvate --derived from glucose-- is converted into ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) through cellular respiration. Cellular respiration involves four stages: glycolysis, the grooming phase, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. The final two stages listed occur in the mitochondria.

Exercise 4: Endocrine System Physiology: Activity 1: Metabolism and Thyroid Hormone Lab Report Pre-lab Quiz Results You scored 100% by answering 6 out of 6 questions correctly. 1. Which of the following statements about metabolism is false? You correctly answered: d. All of the energy from metabolism is ultimately stored in the chemical bonds of ATP. 2. Thyroxine is You correctly answered: c. the most important hormone for maintaining the metabolic rate and body temperature. 3. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) is You correctly answered: b. produced in the pituitary gland. 4. An injection of TSH to an otherwise normal animal will cause which of the following? You correctly answered: d. goiter development 5. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone

Exercise 4: Endocrine System Physiology: Activity 1: Metabolism and Thyroid Hormone Lab Report Pre-lab Quiz Results You scored 100% by answering 6 out of 6 questions correctly. 1. Which of the following statements about metabolism is false? You correctly answered: d. All of the energy from metabolism is ultimately stored in the chemical bonds of ATP. 2. Thyroxine is You correctly answered: c. the most important hormone for maintaining the metabolic rate and body temperature. 3. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) is You correctly answered: b. produced in the pituitary gland. 4. An injection of TSH to an otherwise normal animal will cause which of the following? You correctly answered: d. goiter development 5. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone

3.C. Oxidative Phosphorylation produces the most ATP during cellular respiration. This occurs when there is a transfer of electrons from NADH or FADH2 to O2 by a series of electron carriers.

The mitochondria has been known as the powerhouse of the cell. What does that even mean? Well, what it means that the mitochondria does all of the cell energy conversion. It takes nutrients from the cell and transforms it into viable ATP. ATP, molecule adenosine triphosphate, is the energy that cells can use. The process in turning nutrients into ATP is called ATP Synthase. The first part of ATP synthase is an ending of cellular respiration. The mitochondria plays a small but large role in the cell. The structure of the mitochondria plays a huge part of cellular respiration. Mitochondrial structure has two membranes an inner and an outer. Inside the inner membrane you have the matrix and the cristae. The first part of cellular respiration is glycolysis, it is made outside of the mitochondria in a gel like fluid called the cytoplasm. Next, is the citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle, named after the German researcher Hans Krebs, goes in through the outer membrane. Enzyme Acetyl CoA enters and combines the two carbon groups with another four carbon groups. The result is six carbon molecules citrate, which are acidic. The next part in the Krebs cycle is that the hydrogen atoms are stripped and produce NADH molecules. The final Krebs step is; ADP is transferred to ATP the succinate is oxidized forming another four carbon molecule. The two hydrogen carbons react and their electrons transform from FAD to FADH2. The Krebs cycle makes only about 4 ATP and in the

Their primary function is to convert energy from food in to something cells can use. This process is called oxidative phosphorylation. Within this process, adenosine triphosphate is created using oxygen and simple sugars. Mitochondria also participate in the regulation of the self-destruction of cells, or apophysis, the production of cholesterol, and of heme. However, even mitochondria cannot function without help. Mitochondrial DNA contains the 37 genes essential for the function of mitochondria. Thirteen of those genes provide instructions for making enzymes in oxidative phosphorylation and the remainders contribute to the creation of RNAs (U.S. National Library of Medicine. 2016,

The thyroid stimulating hormone receptors are G-protein linked and are found extracellularly in the thyroid glands. When activated, synthesis of hormonally active iodothyronines T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine) begins (Park and Chatterjee, 2005). This process begins with iodide is transported into the thyroid gland by the sodium iodide symporter found in the membrane of thyroid follicular cells (Park and Chatterjee, 2005). The iodotyrosine residues monoiodotyrosine and diiodotyrosine are then formed through iodine organification where the iodide is oxidised using hydrogen peroxide and then bound to tyrosine in the thyroglobulin (Park and Chatterjee, 2005). The residues then bind together to form the hormonally active iodothyronines aforementioned (Park and Chatterjee, 2005). Many catalytic enzymes mediate this process and are needed to ensure proper thyroid hormone synthesis. Failure in any steps of the synthesis process leads dyshormonogenesis and could be the result of genetic defects. Adequate synthesis of active thyroid hormone is necessary for the regulation of many developmental processes (Richter, C. et al.,

In a normally functioning body, Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3) are hormones produced by the thyroid gland. They help control the rate at which the body uses energy and are regulated by a feedback system. Thyrotropin or Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) from the pituitary gland stimulates the production and release of T4 (primarily) and T3 by the thyroid. Most of the T4 and T3 circulates, bound to protein, in the blood. A small percentage is free (not bound).

When it comes down to essentials, VO2Max is the measure of aerobic fitness. This ability to consume oxygen is vital for the metabolic function of our body cells. The activity within our cells is dependent upon oxygen because the cell gathers its energy from adenosine triphosphate, ATP. Our most productive way to produce these large volumes of ATP are through aerobic metabolism via the oxidative pathway. This pathway echoes the capacity of the muscles’ mitochondria to synthesize ATP. Our maximal consumption of oxygen depends, not only upon our cells’ capability to extract and use oxygen, but also upon the ability of our cardiovascular and respiratory systems to transport this oxygen to our cells to be utilized.

The two carbon molecule bonds four carbon molecule called oxaloacete forming a carbon molecule knew as citrate. The second step reaction is classified as oxidation/reductions reactions. This process is formed by two molecule of CO2 and one molecule of ATP. The cycle electrons reduce NAD and FAD, which join the H+ ions to form NADH and FADH2, this result to an extra NADH being formed during the transition. In the mitochondrion, four molecules of NADH and one molecule of FADH2 are produced for each molecule of pyruvate, two molecules of pyruyate enter the matrix for each molecule of oxidized glucose, as a result of these eight molecules of NADH+ two molecules are produced. Six molecules of NADH+, molecules of FADH2 and two molecules of ATP synthesize itself in Krebs cycle. As a result, no oxygen is used in the described reactions. During chimiosmosis, oxygen only plays a role in oxidative phosphorylation. The next step is the electron transport; the electrons are stored on NADH and FADH2 and are used to produce ATP. Electron transport chain is essential to make most ATP produced in cellular respiration. The NADH and FAD2 from the Krebs cycle drop their electrons at the beginning of the transport chain. When the electrons move along the electron transport chain, it gives power to pump the hydrogen along the membrane from the matrix into the intermediate space. This process forms a gradient concentration forcing the hydrogen through ATP syntheses attaching

ROS refers to reactive oxygen species, which by definition is not limited to one singular species but rather any molecule that contains oxygen and is also highly reactive - most contain unpaired electrons. They can be generated spontaneously, but the mitochondria are the largest producer of ROS in most cells. Within the mitochondria ROS production occurs in the respiratory chain in Complex I and III. The actual location on Complex I where ROS generation occurs isn’t 100% known, however it is known that superoxide is generated on the matrix side of the mitochondrial inner membrane (MIM). According to the article, ROS generation most likely occurs through the FMN prosthetic group and an inhibitor, rotenone. Rotenone acts as a complex I-ubiquinone binding site inhibitor and when substrates that are NADH-linked are present superoxide production increases (ROS production increases). An alternate theory for the site on Complex I is the Q-binding site. Here semiquinone will form sometimes when Q

Mitochondria are important intracellular organelles responsible for life & death. The mitochondrial matrix has multiple copies of mitochondrial DNA whose replication are not related to the cell cycle. Thus replication of mitochondrial DNA occurs several times and leads to mutations due to error in replication. This leads to mitochondrial dysfunctions which subsequently leads to oxidative stress and an increase in ROS . The main function of mitochondria is to produce ATP by oxidative phosphorylation. It regulates a variety of metabolic and signaling pathways and also plays an important role in programmed cell death. Recent studies using animal models have shown the decline in mitochondrial function with age thus bringing out a relationship between mitochondrial dysfunction and

Mitochondria play a key role in the apoptotic process, being involved in two distinct signaling pathways: (1) maintenance of ATP production, and (2) mitochondrial membrane potential and mitochondrial membrane permeability. The mitochondrial membrane potential results from the difference in the electrical potential generated by the electrochemical gradient across the inner membrane, which is critical for maintaining the physiological function of the respiratory chain to generate ATP. Therefore, changes in the ∆Ψm have been originally proposed to be early and obligate events in the apoptotic signaling pathway.

The first step of cellular respiration is glycolysis which occurs in the cytoplasm. During glycolysis, glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvic acid and four molecules of ATP. Next, the Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondria. Enzymes control all reactions which occur in the Krebs cycle; during this step carbon compounds are rearranged and electrons are gathered in preparation for the electron transport chain. The electron transport chain occurs in the membrane of the mitochondria and is the last step of cellular respiration. It uses energy from the electrons being passed along a protein chain to create 32 ATP (and H2O which is a byproduct). This lab explores the effect of exercise on the rate of cellular respiration. To record the effects, bromothymol blue was utilized. Bromothymol blue is a solution which allows for detection of cellular respiration by changing color from blue to yellow when coming in contact with

Cellular respiration is a procedure that most living life forms experience to make and get chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The energy is synthesized in three separate phases of cellular respiration: glycolysis, citrus extract cycle, and the electron transport chain. Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are both anaerobic pathways because they do not bother with oxygen to form energy. The electron transport chain however, is aerobic due to its use of oxidative phosphorylation. Oxidative phosphorylation is the procedure in which ATP particles are created with the help of oxygen atoms (Campbell, 2009, p. 93). During which, organic food molecules are oxidized to synthesize ATP used to drive the metabolic reactions necessary to maintain the organism’s physical integrity and to support all its activities (Campbell, 2009, pp. 102-103).