Dna Research Paper

Throughout the early 19th and 20th century, many scientists have studied deoxyribonucleic acids in order to attain higher understanding over the matter. Johann G. Mendel had figured out and understood the laws of heredity. Friedrich Miescher amazingly discovered DNA in 1869, even though scientists did not understand DNA was the genetic material

The author explains the basics of DNA by describing the simple part of it, “proteins are the molecules that do all of the work in every organism, from carrying oxygen, to building tissue, to copying DNA for the next generation” (Carroll 73). He also explained the four bases that are building blocks that are held together by strong bonds and are represented by the letters A, C, G and T. Scientist also learned that A and T always pair with each other as well as G and C, this helps them because if they know one strand of DNA they already know the second because of how the bases match up. The author states that scientists have found about 500 genes that exist in all forms of life, the author explains that these genes are “immortal”. These genes have endured millions of years of evolution and have not been mutated because they are essential for every organism to have; these genes can have important jobs such as decoding of the DNA and RNA and making

In the early 1950s, the race to find the structure of DNA was in full swing. The search was being conducted at three different colleges. At the California Institute of Technology, Linus Pauling,

Each human being has something called DNA. DNA is described as genetics and an extremely long macromolecule that is the main component of chromosomes and is the material that transfers genetic characteristics in all life forms. DNA constructs of two nucleotide strands coiled around each other in a ladder like arrangement with the sidepieces composed of alternating phosphate and deoxyribose units and the rungs composed of the purine and pyrimidine bases adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. Each chromosome consist of one continuous thread-like molecule of DNA coiled tightly around proteins and contains a portion of the 6,400,000,000 basepairs that make up your DNA.

Indeed DNA profiling has rapidly transform the field of forensics. DNA profiling is the scientific analysis of evidence for crime scene investigation and other legal proceedings. DNA profiling is mostly used by forensic scientists and crime lab technicians. To identify criminals and victims using trace evidence like hair or skin samples. To produce a DNA profile, scientists compare sequences in the genome that vary from person to person. The typical steps in DNA profiling are DNA samples are isolated from the crime scene, suspect, victims, or other evidence. The next selected sequences from each DNA sample are amplified (copied many times) to produce a large sample of DNA fragments. Finally the amplified DNA regions are compared using a gel. All together, these steps provide data about which samples are from the same individual and which sample is unique.

There are a variety of correct scientific aspects that describe how DNA works and how to be obtain. We can identify the correct aspects by comparing them with today’s scientific discoveries. One example is the ability to find genetic compatibility in order to procreate a new born. Today this genetic treats can be found through different methods to find the heredity that can be obtained from each parent. Today exists the

During the same year as Franklin’s discovery, Watson and Crick determined that the chemical rungs that join the two helical strands are made up of two base pairs. The two base pairs are adenine (A)-thymine (T) or guanine (G)-cytosine (C). They also realized that the order of those two chemical base pairs that joined the two helical strands “spelled out” the genes and determined the variation of traits in all living organisms. In addition to their already impressive discovery, they also realized that the two helical strands could be separated for copying, which facilitated the passing on of genetic information between each generation. A few years following this discovery by Watson and Crick, biochemists Marshall Nirenberg and Har Gobind Khorana determined the reason for genetic mutations. They occur when the sequence of the chemical bases on the DNA that determine the order of amino acids that link to create a protein is incorrect. These mutations can cause all sorts of problems, such as diseases. However, sometimes these mutations are beneficial and allow organisms to better adapt to their environment.

There's a lot of information that is not provided that might be useful for deciding on conservation efforts. For example, DNA fingerprinting does not tell the information about the bear’s health, its characteristics such as its height, and size, as well as its age. Also, DNA fingerprinting does not provide information regarding if a bear has genetic diseases, or has the ability to make future offsprings.

From childbirth to birth to death the government it must be difficult for the government to keep track of all the citizens in the United States. Therefore from the cradle to the grave the government is looking for ways to keep track all the people. DNA database of all citizens would be crucial in helping to monitor the population. It would be a valuable tool for catching criminals, because DNA is sometime found at crime scenes. However, some think a DNA database would be an invasion of privacy, and it could be abused if it got into the wrong hands. The thought of the government controlling DNA database of every American is attempting to work its way into citizen’s lives. This could lead to corruption and abuse of DNA. The government

The DNA fragment is the blueprint for every piece of the bacteria. The information in the DNA and RNA can be copied and translated into proteins. Depending on roles the proteins move to various part of the bacteria, which transport the proteins around the cells. There are many different ways in which bacteria obtain foreign DNA, involving the procedures of transformation. In transformation, bacteria carry their DNA from the environment through their cell wall. Frederick Griffith discovers the process of transformation in 1928 while examining virulent bacteria that cause pneumonia in mice. Griffith used two strains of pneumococcus bacteria: a virulent, smooth strain (S-strain) and a non-virulent rough-strain. When mice were injected with smooth strain it killed the mice and the non- virulent rough strain, mice were healthy and alive. The mice that are exposed to r-strain cells stayed healthy and good, and those exposed to dead smooth cells stay healthy and good when r-strain

Frederick Griffith conducted one of the first experiments showing bacteria can get DNA by a process called “transformation.” He used two types of bacteria that infect mice-- S strain and R strain. The S strain covers itself with a polysaccharide capsule that protects it from the host's immune system, causing the mice to dice. The R strain does not have that protective shield around it and is killed by the host's immune system. The S strain was heated to kill it, and then injected into mice, it produced no bad effects. But, when dead S strain mixed with live R strain was injected into the mouse, the mouse died. the combination of the two was able to kill it. He concluded that the R strain had been "transformed" into the S strain by a "transforming

The work of these four people led to a complete restructuring of the beliefs of the scientific community regarding genetic information. Their initial word led to further work which encompassed their hypothesis of how DNA replicates itself. From this work came the modern technologies of DNA fingerprinting and sequencing.

The quest for deoxyribonucleic acid was a search that had drawn out for quite a long time. The fame for the discovery of the structure of the double helix belonged to Watson and Crick, for they had debunked the mystery in 1953. Their finding denoted a milestone in the history of science. It also set the path for future biology studies. This study like all others, began with a solitary idea, a single experiment, which sparked future generations to follow the same path. This follows the fact that the scientific method is not linear, it is circular. Utilizing this, the two researchers, Watson and Crick, began with a purpose, collected background research on the topic, and created a hypothesis which led them to results that may or may not have

Avery, Macleod, and McCarthy took the findings of Griffith and wanted to reason why the combination of the two cells killed the mouse. The took the different parts which would cause the DNA, Protein, and RNA and eventually eliminated them one by one. After all of that, only bacteria that was exposed to the S-strain DNA were transformed. This gave the idea that DNA is what was controlling living things and was the outcome of this experiment

The importance of the work of Griffith, Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty: Three scientists, Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty, managed to show that Frederick Griffith’s transforming factor was in fact DNA that is DNA is the heritable substance. At first, Avery disregarded Griffith’s results that really challenged his own research on pneumococcal capsules. However, he soon confirmed Griffith’s results and set about trying to purify this mysterious transforming principle. This principle is a substance that can cause a heritable change of bacterial cells. They both extracted from Streptococcus pneumoniae S containing a capsule bacteria refined DNA, proteins and other materials and mixed R bacteria lacking a capsule with these different materials, and only those mixed with DNA were converted into S bacteria. Hence, DNA is the “transforming factor” and not proteins or other materials. Not everyone was convinced by the experiments of Avery 's, MacLeod 's and McCarty 's as it was still broadly presumed that genetic information was carried in protein. Firstly, due to Levene 's influential many considered DNA to be a “stupid molecule,” made up of a repeat of the four chemical bases without any variations. Secondly, few biologists thought that genetics could be applied to bacteria, since they lacked chromosomes and sexual reproduction. Although the experimental findings of their experiment were quickly and independently a number of scientists still