Dna Rna And : Dna Replication

Translation is a task that makes ribosomes synthesize proteins utilizing mRNA transcript made during transcription. In the begining of this task mRNA attaches it self to a ribosome so that it can be reveal a codon (three nucleotides).

Sickle cell anemia (SCA) is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder. This missense mutation is characterized by mutant beta globin subunits that tend to stick together (Cummings, 2014). As a result, abnormally shaped red blood cells are produced by this disorder. The erythrocytes are sickle or crescent shaped. Sickling occurs under hypoxic conditions, in which there is insufficient supply of oxygen delivered throughout the body (Sun & Xia, 2013). In order to inherit this monogenic disease, one copy of the sickle globin gene from each parent must be passed on to the offspring (Ashley-Koch,

The effects of the sickle cell mutation can be traced back to DNA in which the mutated gene is replicated and transcribed to mRNA. This mRNA is then used to synthesize polypeptides in the ribosomes where it translates the mutant genetic code (GUG) which codes for valine. Instead of the genetic code for glutamic acid (GAG) which is the amino acid found in the normal haemoglobin. This causes the haemoglobin to be clumped up together in the red blood cells and depriving them if oxygen causing a sickle shaped cell instead of the normal round, biconcave

Sickle Cell Anaemia is a heredity disorder in which the red blood cells are affected by altering into a mutated-form of haemoglobin, most commonly at low oxygen levels. The altered-form of haemoglobin are crescent-shape; which are not flexible and can easily block the blood flow in smaller blood vessels and arteries (refer to figure 1). When both alleles inherited carry the sickle cell anaemia disease; 100% of the body’s haemoglobin will mutate into the sickle (crescent) shape. Sickle cell disease is the codominance of only one inherited sickled allele, in which; the carrier can pass the disorder but does not express any significant symptoms or the anaemia itself. Sickle cell anaemia is an autosomal recessive disorder, thus both alleles must

To understand the transformation lab we did, you need some background information to help understand what we did. The DNA structure is formed in a double helix which means it has two strands and consists of nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains deoxyribose sugars that are bonded by phosphodiester which bond to a phosphate group and a nitrogen base. The nitrogen base matches up to the nitrogen base on the opposite strand of the double helix. There are two types of nitrogen bases that occur, purine which is either A or G which form a hydrogen bond with pyrimidine which is either T or C. When DNA is replicated the hydrogen bonds that hold the strands together break down by an enzyme and then the RNA primase is added so DNA polymerase 3 can attach

Sickle cell disease is a group of diseases in which the affected individual has at least one copy of hemoglobin S (HbS). Sickle cell anemia is a type of sickle cell disease in which the patient inherits 2 copies of hemoglobin S (genotype HbSS). There are other examples of sickle cell disease; they include- HbAS, HbSC, and HbS beta thalassemia (National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute). The focus of this article would be on Sickle cell anemia. Sickle cell anemia is seen predominantly among Africans but is also seen in people of Mediterranean origin and the Middle East. It occurs in approximately 1:500 African American births and 1:36,000 Hispanic American births. About 2 million people in the United States have acquired the sickle cell trait (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services). The disease is caused by a point mutation in position 6 of the beta subunit of the hemoglobin gene which results in substitution of the amino acid valine in place of glutamic acid. There is a single nucleotide substitution (A to T) in the codon for amino acid 6. The change converts a glutamic acid codon (GAG) to a valine codon (GTG) (National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute).

“Sickle cell disease is an autosomal recessive disorder of blood cells caused by a genetic defect of the beta-globin chain of adult hemoglobin (HbA). The mutant forms of hemoglobin are sickle hemoglobin (HbS) because HbS polymerizes in deoxygenated blood, causing red blood cells to form a sickle shape. Normal hemoglobin has a biconcave disc shape that allows for maximum transportation of oxygen” (George, Mitchell, Mitchell, Eason, Fuh, & Embse, 2014).

As the 2 DNA strands open at the origin, replication, 2 strands open forming replication forks(Y shaped) then new strands grow on the forks As the 2 DNA strands open, replication bubbles form, Prokaryotes (Bacteria) have a SINGLE bubble, and Eukaryotic chromosomes have many bubbles. Enzymes unwind and separate the 2 DNA strands by breaking the weak hydrogen bonds. Single strand binding proteins attach and keep the 2 DNA strands separated and untwisted. Enzyme topoisomerase attaches to the 2 different forks of the bubble to relieve stress on the DNA molecule as it separates. Before new DNA strands can form, they must be RNA primers present to start the addition of new nucleotides. Primase is the enzyme that synthesizes the RNA primer, DNA polymerase can then add the new nucleotides. Cloning is a good

The process in which DNA is copied into RNA is the process of Transcription. During this process the double stranded DNA is split and then extra nucleotides are used to construct a single stranded RNA sequence that is later used for building proteins. The enzyme known as RNA polymerase moves down the DNA strand and reads the strand to produce the RNA strand. As this process is taking place, the 3’ end of the RNA polymerase is checking the work of the 5’ side of the enzyme. When the RNA polymerase spots an error, the enzyme is placed into reverse and then corrects the mistake. The accuracy of this

The process of making a RNA copy of a gene sequence is called transcription. The copy which is called mRNA (messenger) molecule exits the cell nucleus and goes inside of the cytoplasm. Once inside the cytoplasm the cell nucleus guides the synthesis of the protein. This is when it is encoded. The process of when the sequence of a messenger RNA (mRNA) is translated the molecule of the classification of the mRNA in groups of 3 bases which is used to accumulate the protein. DNA encodes the information to make RNA and RNA molecules works together to make protein. Basically transcription is another way to rewrite DNA into RNA. Translation is when we decode RNA into protein. The three steps of translation are initiation, elongation, termination.

RNA is very similar to DNA. It resembles a long chain with the links in the chain made up of individual nucleotides. The nucleotides in RNA also similar to DNA that made up of three components, which are a sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogen base. The sugar in RNA is ribose instead of the more stable deoxyribose in DNA, which helps to make RNA more flexible and less durable. In RNA, the bases also come in four chemical forms, and the information in RNA is encoded in the sequence in which these bases are arrange. The nitrogen bases in RNA include Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), and Guanine (G), but RNA has Uracil (U) instead of Thymine (T) in DNA. Cells make RNA messages in a process similar to the replication of DNA. The DNA strands are pulled

The main organic compounds are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and proteins. They all help our bodies in different ways. Some provide energy in our bodies while others are used a instruments in genetics. We need these compounds to live.

There are 3 stages occur during interphase, which are G1 (gap one), S (synthesis) and G2 (gap two). In G1 stage (also known as Growth phase), the cell grows, made protein, enzymes, nutrients and organelles, which are needed for the DNA replication. In S stage, DNA replication happened following the process of semi-conservative replication. In this process, the DNA helicase unwinds the double helix structure (at replication fork). DNA polymerase is the enzyme that makes new strands of DNA. It adds nucleotides onto the new strand towards the 3’ end of the new strand. Leading strands (3’ to 5’ direction) and Lagging strands (5’ to 3’ direction) are replicated differently. DNA wraps around a special protein group call Histone. The chromosomes will have an X shape with a pair of chromatids attach to one centromere in each chromosome. The cell will continue to grow in G2 stage and will look for mistakes in the DNA and make sure that cells contain enough protein that needed before going to mitosis.

Wu were able to isolate genomic DNA from peripheral blood leukocytes of individuals. Wu states sickle cell anemia is the “prototype of a genetic disease caused by a single base-pair mutation and A T transversion in the sequence encoding codon 6 of the human -globin gene” (Wu 1989). Generally, a homozygous sickle cell anemia is when “the substitution of a single amino acid in the -globin subunit of hemoglobin results in a reduced solubility of the deoxyhemoglobin molecule and erythrocytes assume irregular shapes” (Wu 1998). The DNA from each individual was subjected to “25 rounds of PDR using either the sickle cell-specific primer set (H14S and BGP2) or the normal gene-specific primer set (H14A and BGP2) using an annealing temperature” (Wu 1989). The research, Wu and his colleges conducted in 1989, has improved the technology of diagnosing sickle cell anemia by exercising easily acceptable applications, requiring a small amount of DNA, and utilizing time.

The process of DNA replication plays a crucial role in providing genetic continuity from one generation to the next. Knowledge of the structure of DNA began with the discovery of nucleic acids in 1869. In 1952, an accurate model of the DNA molecule was presented, thanks to the work of Rosalind Franklin, James Watson, and Francis Crick. To reproduce, a cell must copy and transmit its genetic information (DNA) to all of its progeny. To do so, DNA replicates following the process of semi-conservative replication. Two strands of DNA are obtained from one, having produced two daughter molecules that are identical to one another and to the parent molecule. This essay reviews the three stages