Do Molluscs Show An Immune Response?

51) What activity does cell 1 undertake to contribute to the body's defense against injury and infection? phagocytosis of foreign materials

Describe how and why both types of adaptive immunity can cause problems with organ transplantation.

The aim of this lab is to determine if the Seven River oyster is suitable for oyster restoration. During this lab we learned that Salinity affects the oysters if it is more than 10-13ppt. We also have knowledge that there is a parasite (the protozoan, Haplospordium nelson) that causes the disease MSX in oysters (Readel, 2000). Moreover, at the lab we knew that MSX bacteria will grow if salinity is above 15 ppt that will cause the oysters to die. The oysters can be affected by MSX if the salinity is above 15 ppt (Readel, 2000). Furthermore, Oysters are also used to filter the water of the river. Also, we learned that the range of tolerance of salinity for oysters is 10-27

n.d.). Gram-negative bacteria have a cell wall made up of a thin layer of Peptidoglycan, which is covered with an outer membrane of Lipoprotein and Lipopolysaccharide, and a bipolar-staining coccobacillus is an oval shaped bacterial cell with two poles that is in between coccus and bacillus forms (Miller-Keane Encyclopedia and Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing, and Allied Health, Seventh Edition. 2003.). It is also known as an obligate intracellular pathogen, meaning that it is a microorganism causing disease that is only able to survive in a particular environment or by taking on a particular role. This particular pathogen can only survive when concentrated in blood (Sutyak, Katia. n.d.). This fermentative, motile organism produces a thick antiphagocytic, or a cell that prevents the action of phagocytes, slime layer as it moves (Sutyak, Katia. n.d.). Phagocytes are cells that absorb detrimental microorganisms, unwanted material, and other foreign bodies within the bloodstream and tissues (The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, Mifflin, Houghton.

The purpose of the study by Barr et al. is to investigate an assumed symbiotic relationship between a bacteriophage and the mucus layer of a metazoan host, which may create a defense against microbes to protect the mucus layers from bacterial infection. The mucus layer has about four times more phage than bacteria, which is seen in preliminary testing, and because phage encode hypervariable proteins that may aid in adsorption to bacteria prey, the phages may work to protect the mucus layer be adhering to the surface with the hoc protein found in the capsid of the T4 bacteriophage. The study hopes to explain the importance of the co-evolution between phages and the mucus layer by presenting evidence of their symbiotic relationship, which

2.As a result, this evokes an organic defensive reaction as the connective tissue of your invaded organ attempts to encyst the fungin colonies through cellular hyper-production, which results in the formation of tumors

Motility is present even in the absence of a stimulus, if the organism contains flagella or pseudopodia (14). However, if the cells are exposed to a gradient of chemoattractant or chemorepellent, their motility is biased toward or away from higher concentrations of that stimulus (14). When Dictyostelium are exposed to various cAMP concentrations, more pseudopodia are formed and are extended towards the areas of high cAMP concentrations (14). This process is mirrored by neutrophils, which extend pseudopodia rhythmically towards positive chemotactic stimuli

      interaction with the environment which consist of micro-organism and potentials body injury is unavoidable in human life. the presence of micro-organisms and potential for bodily injury pose a threat to the state of an individual's health. Natural protection of the body against invasion by organisms and damage by injury Is ensured by the process of inflammation and the immune system. inflammation can therefore be protective in certain circumstances.

In fish mucosal immune system is mainly associated with gut, skin and the gill; these are the main mucosal surfaces and immune barriers. Mucosal immune system is a major part that responds and protects against pathogens that enter the body via mucosal surfaces. An inductive site for mucosal immunity possesses organized mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) and local and regional draining lymph nodes (LN), while the effector sites have distinctly different histological compartments. In fish hindgut seems to play vital role in antigen uptake (Rombout et al., 1993). Absorption of macromolecules by intestinal epithelial cells and many diffusely distributed leucocytes as well as intraperitoneal lymphocytes (IELs) are described in numerous fish

The innate immune system is your body’s first line of defense against foreign pathogens. It consists of both physical and chemical barriers. Foreign pathogens that are found in the body have patterns on them that allow the body’s immune cells to identify it. These are called pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). The host cells use special receptors called pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that recognize PAMPs. With the pathogen identified, it can be tagged for Phagocytosis. The pathogen becomes attached to membrane evagination called pseudopodia. The pathogen is then ingested into the host’s immune cell, forming a phagosome. The phagosome then binds with a lysosome. The pathogen is killed and digested by lysosomal enzymes and the

In this lab, the structures of two organisms were analyzed: Paramecium and a mushroom. The Paramecium was observed using a microscope. Through the microscope, it was possible to observe the movement of the Paramecium and their shape and structures. The Paramecium is transparent, which allowed the possibility of seeing its organelles. The organelles seemed as many small dots inside the Paramecium’s body. Even though it was not possible to see the cilia, the Paramecium only moved because of it. The movement performed by the Paramecium made it seem as though the entire body changed its teardrop-shape while moving. Besides, some Paramecium seen to be eating. The magnification used to observe the Paramecium in the microscope was 100x.

Analysis of data showed that there was a higher percentage of macrophages than B cells present within the MHC positive population. The remaining population of cells (3%) can be attributed to dendritic cells, which have been previously shown to form a small percentage (3%of cells) within zebrafish gut by Wittamer et al, 2011. While we used visual morphological differences to distinguish between B cells and macrophages, future experiments can make use of the mhc2dab:GFP; cd45:DsRed double-transgenic (Wittamer et al,2011) which would enable us to distinguish between macrophages (mhc+; cd45+) and B cells (mhc+) through fluorescent markers thereby allowing us to FACS sort pure populations if needed as well. We saw that within the mhc+ cells in the wild-type zebrafish gut, phagocytosis by macrophages within gut phagocytes was higher than B cells.This high proportion of phagocytosis by macrophages within leukocyte populations is consistent with Page et al’s, 2013, in-vivo study in which more than half of the phagocytic cells in murine peritoneal cavity were macrophages. We further quantified phagocytic efficiency of each cell type within their respective populations. 54.5% of macrophages within the macrophage population were phagocytic and 33.8% of B cells within the B cell population were phagocytic. Interestingly, previous research by Li et al, indicated that teleost fish can show up to 60% of phagocytic behaviour by B cells. However, in contrast, a study by Page et al, showed only a 2% phagocytic efficiency of zebrafish B cells. While the researchers acknowledge that there is a possibility that intrinsic experimental conditions could have contributed to this result, it should also be noted that the in-vitro experiment used B cells from the kidney to test for phagocytic efficiency. B cells from the gut may have

Marine animals are not like humans, not completely anyway. They have to hunt for food to survive and swim thousands of miles every day. Humans don’t go through that anymore but we did, we know what food is now and what is not, marine animals cannot tell the difference.

Humoral immunity is characterized by secretion of proteins called antibodies, which immobilize and block the ability of pathogen to infect the host cells in additon of promoting the ingestion by phagocytes. Antibodies are secreted by B-lymphocytes, which are derived from bone marrow and on activation of antigen differentiate into plasma cells known for their ability of antibody secretion. Humoral immunity is defense mechanisam used against extracellular microbes and toxins, since antibodies can bind to them and assist in their elimination. Antibodies are specific for antigens found on microbes and, as previously said, recognize fine differences between the

The way the body responds when it encounters foreign particles of bacterial pathogens is by it having some cells called phagocytes that will recognize these pathogens, therefore a large number of phagocytes will be sent to the location of where the pathogens were encountered and the defense genes will activate, having proteins go through transcription and translation in order to kill the pathogens in the body.