Electron Communication

To send a message, a neuron will send a ripple of electrical energy down its axon. This ripple is called "action potential." The way it works is by changing the chemical makeup of the axon's negatively charged interior. Positively charged sodium ions move into the cell and negatively charged potassium ions move out, then the ions move to their original positions. This produces a wave of positively charged

The central nervous system (CNS) comprises grey matter, which contains neuron cell bodies and white matter, which contains the nerve axons. Most of the nerve axons are concentrically wrapped around by lipid-rich biological membrane, known as the myelin sheath. In the CNS, myelin is produced by oligodendrocyte. a type of glial cell. (Pfeiffer et al., 1993). These electrical insulating, multilamellar membranes significantly increase the electrical resistance, in which to prevent leakage of electrical currents from the axons, as well as decrease electrical capacitance to reduce the ability of the axons to store electrical energy (Shivane &

Cerebrospinal fluid is a clear, colorless fluid that acts as a cushion to protect and support the brain inside of the skull, while also playing an essential role in the removal of waste products from the brain. It can be found surrounding both the brain and spinal cord. I was motivated to do research on the path that the cerebrospinal fluid takes from its formation site because of its importance in protecting the brain.

Glial cells make up 90 percent of the brain's cells. Glial cells are nerve cells that don't carry nerve impulses. The various glial (meaning "glue") cells perform many important functions, including: digestion of parts of dead neurons, manufacturing myelin for neurons, providing physical and nutritional support for neurons, and more. Types of glial cells include Schwann's Cells, Satellite Cells, Microglia,

Impulses will travel along the neuron pathways as the electrical charges move across each neural membrane. Ions that are moving across the membrane can cause the impulse to move along the nerve cells.

Neuronal Communication 1. During the rising and depolarization phase of action potential, there are several important actions that are taking place. Action potential hinges on the depolarization of cell, where the membrane becomes more positive. Once the proper voltage is reached, sodium channels on the membrane open up and sodium begins pouring into the cell.

The fluid in the brain (cerebrospinal fluid or CSF) is formed in the brain. CSF usually circulates through parts of the brain, its covering, and the spinal canal, and is then absorbed into the circulatory system.

This area is normally filled with Cerebrospinal fluid, which acts as A type of cushion that protects the brain from damage

The CNS contains the brain and spinal cord. Its main functions include: processing, integrating, and coordinating sensory information and motor instructions. The sensory data conducts information that is being processed from internal and external conditions the body is experiencing. Motor commands regulate and control peripheral organs (skeletal muscles). The brain functions under memory, emotions, learning, and intelligence. The PNS consist of the neural tissue found outside of the CNS. It functions in sending data to the CNS which motor commands are than carried out to the peripheral tissues/systems. Multiple nerve fibers send sensory data and motor commands in the PNS. The nerves that assist with transmitting data include the cranial nerves and spinal nerve. However, the PNS can be divided into afferent (to bring in) and efferent (to bring out) divisions of transferring data. The afferent division functions in bringing in sensory data to the CNS. Sensory structures are receptors that detect internal/external environmental change and adjusting accordingly. The efferent division functions in carrying out motor commands from the CNS to glands, muscles, and adipose tissue. The efferent division contains somatic

Glial cells are the most numerous cells in the brain, outnumbering neurons nearly 3:1, although smaller and some lacking axonal and dendritic projections. Once thought to play a subpar role to neurons, glial cells are now recognized as responsible for much greater functions. There are many types of glial cells, including: oligodendrocytes, microglia, and astrocytes. Oligodendrocytes form the myelin sheath in the CNS, by wrapping themselves around the axons of neurons. Their PNS counterpart, Schwann cells, are also considered glial cells. This sheath insulates the axon and increases the speed of transmission, analogous to the coating on electrical wires. Microglia are considered to be “immune system-like”; removing viruses, fungi, and other wastes that are present. Astrocytes, however, are considered to be the most prominent. Their functions span throughout the brain, including, but not limited to: the synchronization of axonal transmission via G-protein-coupled receptors, blood flow regulation via the dilation of blood vessels, and the performance of reactive gliosis in conjunction with microglia. Both astrocytes and oligodendrocytes develop from neuroepithelial cells. Other types of glial cells include Radial glia, which direct immature neuron migration during development.

Whenever the balance is altered, the process of transmitting electrical signals, which is called action potential initiates by carrying information across a neuron’s axon; which is called resting membrane potential. This process occurs as uneven ions distribution flow across cell membrane, creating electrical potential. As a result, the duration of active potential can be as fast as 1 ms. Similarly, the average resting membrane is between -40 mV and -80 mV. Since the membrane from inside is more negatively charged than the outside, it reflected on the negative average voltage readings of the resting membrane.

CSF (cerebrospinal fluid) is the fluid that bathes the brain and spinal cord. It is formed in the ventricles of the brain and follows a course down the spinal column and back up to the brain, where it is reabsorbed into the bloodstream.

That layer of cells forms a barrier between the capillaries and the cells and fluid of the brain.

Astrocytes are the most abundant type of glial cells and their organization in the brain is quite complex. Each astrocyte has its own domain and has the ability to reach more than 100 thousand neuronal synapses at once (Halassa, et al. 2007). In fact, the size of astrocytes increase as the brain functionality become more complex that implies that astrocytes are evolutionary old (Kimelberg and Nedergaard 2010). For a long time, it was believed that astrocytes are only function as a structural support. Indeed, astrocytes are contributing to network activity of neurons. They have and important role in neuronal metabolism, providing neurons with necessary nutrients via vasculature and act as a storage of glycogens to sustain

Glia means “glue” in the Greek language and historically these cells were so named since they seem to fill up the space between neurons. (The Human Brain, An introduction to Its Functional Anatomy, 4th Edition- John Nolte). Generally, Glial cells completely envelop neurons and have been shown to perform a variety of functions within both the CNS and PNS. There are various types, each with a specific role to help provide structural and metabolic support for their neighbouring neurons. Although there are many more of these cells than there are neuronal cells in the human brain, they do not conduct or transmit information. Instead, they absorb various chemical substances found in the brain that are either in excess or simply not required.