Endoplasmic Reticulum ( Er ) Stress Response

The endoplasmic reticulum is specialised for protein processing and lipid biosynthesis. One of its primary functions is to regulate the ionic concentration in the cytoplasm via the movement of Ca2+, via ionic pumps and channels. It also contains enzymes responsible for the metabolising of drugs. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) can come in two forms. As depicted in Fig. 2 Rough ER has ribosomes present as part of the membrane of the organelle, and together with these ribosomes takes polypeptides and amino acids from the cytosol and synthesises proteins destined for attachment to cell membranes. It is in the lumen of the rough ER that the proteins are folded into the specific three dimensional shapes that are so important for biochemical recognition and linking sites [6]. It is called rough because of the presence of ribosomes makes the surface of the membrane look rough, unlike smooth ER, which lacks the ribosomes so the membrane looks smooth. Rough ER is composed of a large but convoluted flattened sac. The main function of the smooth ER is the production of lipids and the metabolism of compounds (such as the breakdown of glycogen into glucose). Because of the different functions between the rough and smooth ER, different specialised cells will have different amounts of each; for example, hepatic

The purpose of this experiment was to indirectly study the effects of environmental stress on cell membranes. Watercourses have been with discarding of domestic and manufacturing, for centuries. Alarms have only escalated about the ecological alterations in the recent years of what would be the consequences. Scientists have developed a thorough investigation in search of various man harmful waste that is damaging the environment of watercourses.

RSV infection is limited to the respiratory tract. Respiratory Syncytial Virus affects the respiratory system causing an interruption of the normal physiology of the lungs which are the main organs affected. The lungs are a pair of cone-shaped bodies that occupy the thorax. The lungs have two vital functions air distribution and gas exchange. In addition to attending as an air distribution pathway and gas exchange surface the components of the respiratory tract cleanse, warm and humidify inspired air. RSV affects the lungs by inflaming the small airways and decreasing the oxygen flow in and out, thereby affecting the capacity for normal oxygen exchange. Initial infection in young infants or children frequently involves the LRT and most often manifests as the clinical entity of bronchiolitis. Inoculation of the virus occurs in the URT in respiratory epithelial cells [ (Leonard R Krilov, 2010) ]. Spread of the virus down the respiratory tract occurs by

* Flaviviruses: share a common size (40-60nm), symmetry (enveloped, icosahedral nucleocapsid), nucleic acid (positive-sense, single stranded RNA approximately 10,000-11,000 bases), and appearance in the electron microscope. Therefore, images of West Nile virus are representative for this group of viruses.

Respiratory Synctial Virus (RSV) is an infection that is contagious that resembles the common cold a lot of times. RSV is the most common viral pathogen that causes lower respiratory tract infections in infants. RSV infection in infancy cause severe bronchiolitis and pneumonia and may incline children to the following development of asthma, the most common chronic illness of childhood. RSV is the most single related cause of pneumonia and bronchiolitis. Epidemics of the virus are seen each winter, 80% of infections typically occur during a three-month period. The virus is not typically severe during infancy but it is rare if it happens. (As, in my case I was born with the RSV virus and was hospitalized for eighteen days and was put on assisted ventilation.) In infants RSV infection can spread to the bronchial tubes and lungs. The virus can also infect adults, in where the infection can cause viral pneumonia, which is sometimes followed by a bacterial infection of the lower respiratory system.

The respiratory syncytial pathogen is a non-segmented negative -sense single stranded RNA virus that falls under the paramyxoviridae family. The virus is comprised of 10 genes the encode 11 proteins and is divided into two subtypes A and B, which further divide into multiple genotypes. Genetic studies have tried

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the bronchial mucosa and hyperreactive bronchial tubes. Its etiology has been linked to both genetic and environmental factors. Several genes, including those that influence the production of proteins and cells involved in the immune response (such as interleukins, eosinophils, mast cells) have been linked with asthma. A decreased number of T-regulatory cells is also associated with asthma. Environmental factors linked with asthma include exposure to allergens, urban residence, and smoking (or exposure to secondary smoke). Recurrent respiratory tract viral infections may also contribute to the development of asthma. Decreased exposure to certain infectious organisms during early childhood, and the consequent underdevelopment of the immune response, can also lead to the development of asthma--this is known as the hygiene hypothesis (McCance & Huether, 2014, p. 1263-4).

RSV comes into the airway epithelium from the apical side only and aims to destroy the ciliated epithelia cells (4). Then RSV buds and releases the virus from the apical surface (4).

The influenza virus is part of the Orthomyxoviridae family and is spherical in shape with many spike-like projections of glycoproteins HA. The viral core is composed of eight negative-sense, single

Mr. A is exhibiting signs and symptoms of atrophy which is a decrease in cell workload. Mr. A muscle cell workload will decline as well as o2 and protein synthesis. Mr. A is experiencing several different forms of atrophy, with the first being disuse, which is a reduction in skeletal use. Secondly Mr. A is also exhibiting inadequate nutrition due to his diet of only biscuit and grits. Lastly, due to the compound fraction which means there is a break in the skin, there would be poor circulation. Mr. A is experiencing gas gangrene due to the compound fracture, and exposure to outside elements for the past few weeks he has been in the bed. There are 3 different types of gangrene.

The Rhinovirus is acts like a flu. The virus affects the respiratory system, but not the lower half, only the upper half. The respiratory system is a person's lungs. The lungs are important because they allow people to breathe and live. Air enters through the nose or mouth into the throat, then air goes into the trachea, from the trachea to the right and left bronchi and then into the lungs.

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress has emerged as one of the major pathophysiological mechanism of various diseases. It is a multifunctional cellular organelle and it is responsible for protein synthesis, folding, trafficking, processing transmembrane proteins and is also known as a primary sensor for cellular stress (2). In order for the ER proteins to be folded properly, there must be a balance between the ER proteins and the amount of folding capacity for it to process. However, the ER homeostasis may be disrupted which could cause the accumulation of unfolded and misfolded

IRE1 exists in two unique homologs in humans: IRE1α, IRE1β (structurally more similar to murine IRE1 than human) that is a type 1 of transmembrane protein with two enzymatic features in cytosolic domains, serine/threonine kinase and endoribonuclease (19). IRE1α is ubiquitously expressed, but IRE1β is only in pulmonary and intestinal epithelial and mucosal epithelial tissues. Among the UPR signaling pathways, IRE1α is a key sensor like a switch and rheostat, able to regulate cell fate (43, 44). After dissociation of GRP78, IRE1 is activated and affect the X-box-binding protein (XBP-1) mRNA with kinase and endoribonuclease activity. It promotes an atypical splicing of XBP-1 mRNA, near the ER membrane, to activate the transcription of XBP-1s

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the central intracellular organelle providing stringent quality control systems to protein synthesis. Upon accumulation of misfolded/ unfolded proteins in the ER, eukaryotic cells have developed an evolutionarily conserved adaptive mechanism, unfolded protein response (UPR), to clear these proteins and restore ER homeostasis. The ability to respond to perturbations in ER function is critical for cell survival but chronic or amplified ER stress can lead to apoptosis to protect the organism by removing the stressed cells. Growing evidence suggests that ER stress-mediated apoptosis may contribute to pathophysiological processes involved in a number of diseases such as neurodegenerative disease, diabetes, atherosclerosis and renal disease [1]. This term paper intends to address (i) ER stress-mediated signaling, (ii) molecular mechanisms linking ER stress to apoptosis and (iii) a potential role of ER stress in autoimmunity in the context of type I diabetes.

The Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) first emerged in 2012 from the Middle Eastern region, particularly the Arabian Peninsula (Banik). The MERS-CoV is a single-stranded RNA virus that, similar to the SARS-CoV and other coronaviruses, is prone to viral mutations that allow for the development of an enhanced human-to-human transmission (Chowell, Banik, Hui). Animal