Environmental Pathogenesis In Bovine Mastitis

I inoculated a T-Soy agar with bacteria number 118, for this I used a streak isolation method. Next, in order to distinguish between Gram positive and Gram negative I used a streak isolation technique on a CNA plate, then performed the same exact procedure on a MacConkey plate. The results from the CNA plate showed the Gram Positive bacteria was an Alpha hemolyzer. Next, I used a P Disc on a T-Soy agar inoculated with bacteria 118 and determined the Gram Positive bacteria was not sensitive to P Disc antibiotics. This revealed the Gram Positive bacteria to be Streptococcus Mitis. The results from the MacConkey plate proved the Gram Negative bacteria to be a lactose fermenter. With the Gram Negative bacteria I performed a lysine test with positive results. Next, I performed an ornithine test on the Gram Negative bacteria, with negative results, therefore I concluded the Gram Negative bacteria was Klebsiella pneumoniae.

Presently, speculations have risen about the amount of antibiotics used in the livestock industry and the desire to consume antibiotic-free meats. What is not understood, however, is the USDA has been monitoring the amount of antimicrobial residue in meats for several years. If unsafe levels are detected the meat is not allowed to be sold for human consumption. Yet, fast food chains such as Subway and Chipotle are claiming to go completely antibiotic free within the next decade. The practicality of this becoming a reality is slim due to the need to control, treat, and prevent diseases. To truly understand the importance of the antibiotic usage in cattle it must first be understood what antibiotics are and the reasons they are used. Additionally, the use of vaccinations should be taken into account for the

The genome of E. coli 0157:H7 was recently sequenced and contains 1,387 new genes absent in non pathogenic strains. Analysis of the genome suggests that there are a variety of potential virulence genes that have yet to be explored, including fimbrial and other adhesions, secretion systems, and toxins. Many of the virulence genes are similar to those associated with pathogenesis in Salmonella and Shigella. Most of them are found on pathogenicity islands from viral DNA that is transmitted to the bacteria through the activity of a lysogenic phage. The two most important toxins, Stx1 and Stx2 (for shiga-toxin) are found on such islands and are composed of 5 B subunits surounding an active A component, which is transported into the cell after the

Instead of being recognized and attacked by T cells, bacteria are recognized and attacked by complement proteins. “Complement proteins assist in bacterial killing via three pathways, the classical complement pathway, the alternative complement pathway or the lectin pathway. The first steps of the classical complement pathway require the binding of antibodies to the surface of the target bacterium” (Immune, 2016). At this point, the antibodies are handled by protein complexes which bind to the surface of the invader (much the same as the process of T cells in viruses). In other words, the body goes through a similar reaction of identifying and then attempting to destroy the invader, including the formation of a membrane attack complex. “MAC can insert into the cell membrane of Gram-negative, but not Gram-positive, bacteria. There, it produces pores that allow the entry of membrane damaging molecules, such as lysozyme, and makes the bacterium susceptible to osmotic lysis” (Immune,

Streptococcus suis was identified and the patient was asked about any recent contact with swine. For several weeks, he had been slaughtering, by hand, several non- commercially raised pigs for a luau. And although he did not recall any mucosal exposure to the pig blood or secretions, there is no known route for infection to humans. He did not wear any type of protective gear, i.e., gloves, apron or facemask. His exposure to pigs blood, skin and organs was extensive. During the slaughter process, his hands sustained multiple cuts. It is possible that the bacteria entered through those cuts as no other church members who participated in the preparation became ill.

aureus is a bacteria that is very common in everyday life, it is a normal bacteria of the human body that people carry with them, therefore most people have already built antibodies to prevent any complications with the bacteria. Due to the fact that S. aureus is a part of the human body, it can be transmitted from direct contact with one another. If one infected being directly touches a healthy being then that healthy being is at risk of infection. Usually those who develop the infection simply have not built antibodies to the bacteria. (Johns Hopkins Health Systems, n.d.) The bacteria is also airborne, as saliva hangs in the air after one sneezes. (Mandal, 2010) S. aureus is a bacteria that that colonizes on the mucosal surface of its host. This surface includes the nose, throat, vaginal wall, and gastrointestinal tract. Due to this colonization, it is much easier for this bacteria to immerse itself into an open wound. Within the body, the resident phagocytes and epithelial cells will respond to the presence of the bacteria by activating the host?s immune system. While this is occurring, the bacteria is thriving both inside and outside of the host cell. Outside of the cell, the bacteria needs to overcome opsonization by antibodies, this is the process in which phagocytes target the bacteria, it attempts to avoid this by displaying clumping factor A, protein A, on its outer capsule. Within the host cell, which can be epithelial cells, endothelial cells, or macrophages,

In the case of Bordetella perussis there are a few specific proteins which are known to be necessary for bacterial adhesion and infection (3). Pertussis toxin, adenylate cyclase, filamentous hemagglutinin, pertactin, and fimbriae are responsible for the adhesion of the bacterial cell to the extracellular matrix of the host cell (3). Pertussis toxin and adenylate cyclase also play a role in invading the cell, evading the host's immune system, and the actual infection process (3).

Streptococci, streptococcus pyogenes, is the predominant cause which group A affects mostly on facial infections and non-group A affects the lower extremity (Gunderson & Martinello, 2012). These toxins are contributing the rapid inflammation which they normally live on body surface without causing problem, then once they penatrated via tinea pedia or eczema that causes the skin breakage and developing erysipelas (Gabillot-Carre & Roujeau, 2007).

The results suggest that pasteurization kills most pathogens in milk by brief exposure to relatively high temperature. This was demonstrated most beneficially with the 10-6 and 10-7 dilutions wherein the raw milk exhibited 284,000,000 cells/mL and 440,000,000 cells/mL respectively and the pasteurized milk had too few cell colony forming units to even count. Unpasteurized milk is not healthy for people to drink. For example, in a study performed in December of 2001, the bacteria Campylobacter jejuni, a microaerophilic bacteria commonly found in animal feces, was found in unpasteurized milk at an organic dairy farm in Wisconsin and caused 75 people, ages 2 to 63, to become ill.

As antibiotics have created, the bacteria are becoming more resistant, and new strains of the bacteria continue to be discovered. While various types of Streptococci are found within the human microbial flora, Streptococcus pneumonia is a viral pathogen generally transmitted from one host to the other in the form of aerosol droplets. While Streptococcus pneumonia bacteria causes pneumonia, it also causes other illnesses including ear infections, sinus infections, meningitis, and even bacteremia (Disease, n.d.). Bacteria has the ability to strike when a host is at its most vulnerable, this term is why certain pathogens are labeled, opportunistic pathogens. Possessing the ability to not only attach to a host, but wait to infect the host at a very calculated moment and time.

Clostridium tetani is a species of pathogenic bacteria which causes the disease tetanus in humans (World Health Organisation [WHO], 2008). Bacteria are prokaryotic microorganisms which contain various structural components. These components include a cell wall and outer membrane which is discovered by the gram stain procedure (Kratz, 2011). C. tetani are gram-positive bacteria therefore its cells have a thick wall however they do not possess an outer membrane ("Vaccines and immunisations," 2015). Other components include flagella which provide cell movement, pili which permit cell adhesion to surfaces such as host cells, and bacterial capsules also known as glycocalyx which prevents the cell from phagocytosis (Todar, 2012).

Anthrax is a zoonotic disease that primarily affects herbivores. It is caused by spore-forming, Gram-positive bacteria called Bacillus anthracis. Spores are present in contaminated soils and contaminated animal products. Herbivores acquire infection while grazing and may develop septicemia. After their death, the vegetative form of the bacteria is present in the meat and body fluids and the spores may be present on the hides. Carcasses and remains may contaminate soils. In humans, the disease manifests itself in three forms: cutaneous, pulmonary, and gastro-intestinal. Cutaneous anthrax accounts for 95% of the cases [1, 2]. Handling contaminated meat, hides, or skins may lead to inoculation of the vegetative form or spores through cuts and

The bacterial capsule which includes serotype specific antibodies has a critical role to play in the virulence of this organism (Smith et al, 2006). The other virulence factors include;

These studies indicate that both healthy and diarrheic calves harbor STEC in their intestine (Blanco et al., 1997; Roopnarine et al., 2007) and shed the bacteria in great quantities for several months (Cray and Moon, 1995; Widiasih et al., 2004). Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) are characterized by their ability to produce two types of shiga toxins virulence factors: shiga toxin 1 (encoded by the stx1 gene), shiga toxin 2(encoded by the stx2 gene). However, STEC isolates frequently have associated two virulence factors; intimin (encoded by the eaeA gene) and enterohaemolysins ( encoded by the hlyA) (Dean-Nystrom et al., 1997; Kang et al., 2004). Intimin is responsible for intimate attachment of STEC to intestinal cells, causing formation of the characteristic attaching and effacing (A/E) lesions (Bolton, 2011). Although the role of enterohemolysin in an intestinal disease is unclear, but it has been suggested that enterohaemolysins may enhance the effects of shiga toxins (Caprioli et al., 2005; Holland et al.,

Crohn’s Disease : Scientific evidence indicates that it is not primarily an autoimmune disease but rather a bacterial infection caused by Johne’s Disease in cows, the bacteria being MAP (Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis). The symptoms of these cows are identical to those of persons with Crohn’s Disease. It has been established that MAP passes into cow milk and is not destroyed by pasteurization. The MAP then enters the intestinal tissue as a saprophyte, not creating any symptoms. A very severe emotional stress activates the MAP and it becomes active in the intestinal tissue. The reaction of the body is to send antibodies to the intestines but as they can not pass into the thick tissue they attack the intestines themselves, creating an autoimmune disease. Camel milk’s protective