Epigenetic Human Development

It may be possible to pass down epigenetic changes to future generations if the changes occur in sperm or egg cells. Most epigenetic changes that occur in sperm and egg cells get erased when the two combine to form a fertilized egg in a process called "reprogramming." This reprogramming allows the cells of the fetus to "start from scratch" and make their own epigenetic changes. However, scientists think that some of the epigenetic changes in parents ' sperm and egg cells may avoid the reprogramming process and make it through to the next generation. If this is true, things like the food a person eats before they conceive could affect their future child. Scientists now think epigenetics can play a role in the development of some cancers. For instance, an epigenetic change that silences a tumor suppressor gene, such as a gene that keeps the growth of the cell in check, could lead to uncontrolled cellular growth. Another example might be an epigenetic change that "turns off" genes that help repair damaged DNA, leading to an increase in DNA damage, which in turn, increases cancer risk. (US, National Institutes of Health)

Epigenetic changes are vital for normal development and health. However, the disruption of any process that leads to epigenetic alteration can cause abnormal gene regulation. Diseases associated with such disruptions include cancer and mental retardation. These examples will be used as evidence to support my

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The environmental factors that impact the epigenome are diet of the organism, involvement in physical activities and exposure to toxins and stress.

Epigenetics is the study of reactions that switch part of the genome at specific locations and time, and what factors influence them. A cell has a sum of signals that help on stabilizing the gene expression; these are epigenetics tags that are accumulated through cell development. While for decades scientists thought the new embryo’s epigenome was made from scratch it is now know that parents’ epigenetic tags play an important role in the life of the new creature. Most of the epigenetic tags are erased during the process of development in a process called “reprogramming” leaving the majority of the cell in a blank state though a few genes make it through the process without successful removal of the tags.

Many studies have been conducted to observe the occurence of T2DM with changes in environmental factors, supported with epidemiological and experimental evidences. A low-protein, high-fat diet, coupled with stress hormones and calorie limitations affect the epigenome and influence the person's metabolic processes in the long term. A theory about the dynamic modification of the epigenome within the individual's life-expectancy is being increasingly backed by evidence, which might affect the person's metabolic health, and can be inherited by the future generation. Some forms of epigenetic modifications include methylation and hydroxymethylation for

By studying Epigenetics, we learn about the changes in heritable genome function without changes in the DNA sequence itself. Transgenerational inheritance requires a chromosomal or epigenetic change in the germline allowing the information to be passed on from one generation to another (Anway et al 2005a). In order for epigenetic marks to be passed down, the gametes need to conserve their epigenomes by avoiding two reprogramming events; in the gamete and zygote. It has generally been accepted that epigenetic marks are removed and re-established in the preceding generation, thus not inherited. However, studies being carried out on model organisms are challenging this concept and suggesting that this may not be entirely correct. There may be an incomplete erasure of epigenetic marks resulting in transgenerational epigenetic inheritance (Youngson and Whitelaw 2008). The present generations were being synthesised in the womb of their grandmother. Therefore, did the food my grandmother ate affect my development? Could the air we breathe affect our grandchildren? Many questions are still unknown in this field. The environment and external factors may cause additional information to be added on top of the genome resulting in phenotypic variation and disease leading to transgenerational epigenetic inheritance. Epigenetic modifications of the germline are not only important to evolutionary biologists and disease aetiology but also ecologists, as incomplete epigenetic changes can

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To understand epigenetics and transgenerational epigenetics in greater detail we need to obtain a clearer picture of the underlying molecular mechanisms. Lim and Brunet (2013) revealed that environmental stimuli can influence the chromatin structure by noncoding RNAs- including siRNA (small interfering RNA, worm), piRNA ((Piwi-interacting RNA, worm and fly), viRNA (small interfering RNAs derived from virus, worm), miRNA (micro RNA, mice)- DNA methylation (mice, rat) and histone modification (with the help of Histone methyltransferase poteins)- H3K4me2/3 (worm), H3K36me3 (worm), H3K36me3 (worm, fly), H3K9me2/3 (worm, fly), H3K27me3 (mice, human). Prion proteins might also play role (yeast). These changes might influence the metabolics, which changes the expression of different chemicals and are themselves potential environmental stress factors; thus, they could initiate epigenomic changes. Chromatin modifications

In the article “Epigenetic programming by maternal behavior”, the authors’ wanted to discover whether high or low licking and grooming (LG) and arched-back nursing (ABN) maternal effects correlated with the progenies genome, specifically in the hippocampus. They believed that maternal behavior will alter the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) responses at the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) promoter, thus changing gene expression. They also thought that with the help of the histone deacetylase inhibitor trichostatin A (TSA), they could reverse the effects on GR expression.

Epigenetics studies the biological information that can be inherited in addition to the DNA, through biochemical changes such as methylation and histone modifications that can affect gene expression and lead to a particular phenotype [9]. Epigenetic plasticity can be influenced by internal and external factors, such as the in utero environment of early development [9]. The intrauterine environment can have short and long term effects on the health and future disease state of offspring. To look into the effects of the intrauterine environment, several factors need to be taken into account. This discussion will include the effects of maternal environmental conditions on the health of offspring, including type 1 and 2 diabetes,

To understand how epigenetic modifications mediate and affect gene expression it is important to understand how and when the epigenome is established. While we do not fully understand all of the complex epigenetic changes that the genome must undergo when being packed and repacked to transmit genetic information to the next generation, studies primarily in mice have provided some understanding of the timing of these events. Furthermore, the timing of these events represents windows in which critical events take place. Studies have shown that perturbation, be they genetic or environmental in nature, during these critical windows can effect development of the fetus and even last multiple generations. Here we will review and discuss the timing

I also learned that these epigenomes change because of environmental factors which include what we do, what we eat, what we drink, or what we smoke. This has been said to be one of the pivotal contraries amongst epigenetics and genetics. I found the groundbreaking study identical twins very interesting. The point of this experiment was to discover if twins were epigenetically identical or not. After obtaining DNA from 40 sets of twins, researchers were able to conclude that as twins age, the chance of epigenetic differences increases.

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Epigenetics is defined as the study of heritable regulation of gene activity that is not determined by the genetic sequence. Our genes are the combination of four bases or parts labeled A, C, G and T, which when disrupted the call mutations. Today we know that genes are controlled by other mechanisms, for example by adding a chemical group called methyl DNA chain or adding another chemical group called acetyl histone proteins, the “keys” of our genome. Remember that genes are DNA fragments are expressed resulting RNA then produce a protein: almost everything we touch in our body are proteins, melanin in our skin, our blood hemoglobin, etc. Rigorous control genes must exist: we do not want a cell of the eye expresses a protein characteristic