Epinephrine Research Paper

Paragangliomas are rare neuroendocrine tumors that arise from the extra-adrenal autonomic paraganglia, small organs consisting mainly of neuroendocrine cells that are derived from the embryonic neural crest and have the ability to secrete catecholamines (1). They are closely related to pheochromocytomas, which are sometimes referred to as intra-adrenal paragangliomas (2). The majority appear to be sporadic, but approximately one-third to one-half are associated with an inherited syndrome (3, 4). The four genetic syndromes that are associated are: multiple endocrine neoplasia 2A and 2B, neurofibromatosis type 1, von Hippel Lindau, and the Carney-Stratakis dyad. The male-to-female ratio is approximately equal among patients with hereditary paraganglioma,

The adrenal gland is the endocrine gland that is activated when one is surprised or experience fear. This adrenal gland is located at the top of the kidneys. The fear hormones known as epinephrine circulates through the bloodstream to all cells of your body ("Fear: Body Alert!" 2013). The effects of adrenaline which is also called epinephrine is similar to the effects of the sympathetic nerve action. These glands increase blood flow to the brain and muscles in defense of the flight or fight response (Griggs, 2014, p.

Adrenal glands are endocrine glands that sit atop the kidneys (Shier et al., 2009). The adrenal glands secrete hormones that increase heart rate, the force of cardiac muscle contraction, breathing rate, elevate blood pressure and blood glucose level. This activity prepares the body foe energy expending action, sometimes called fight or flight responses (Shier et al., 2009).

Pheochromocytoma is an adrenal gland tissue tumor. (PubMed) This growth is a result of excessive release of catecholamine’s (hormones). Norepinephrine and epinephrine are the primary hormones secreted while some can produce dopamine. (Medscape) These increased chemicals in the body can influence the persons “heart rate, blood pressure and metabolism”. (PubMed) If not treated these tumors affect the cardiovascular system and can lead to the development of “life threatening hypertension”. (Medscape) These tumors can be seen as a single mass or multiple tumors and can appear unilateral or bilateral in the body. (PubMed) Thirty percent of pheochromocytoma cases are found to be heredity where ten genes have been linked to the condition. Ten percent of pheochromocytomas are malignant and the most common sites of metastasis include “liver, bone and lymph nodes”. (Medscape)

For the most part, pheochromocytomas occur randomly, typically for unknown reasons. These symptomatic spells may occur due to physical exertion, anxiety or stress, changes in position, foods high in tyramine and certain medications. Due to the fact that the signs and symptoms of pheochromocytoma can be caused by a variety of different things, it is important to get a prompt diagnosis. Eventhough hypertension is one of the most common signs and symptoms of a pheochromocytoma, a majority of individuals who have high blood pressure don’t necessarily have a tumor. Hypertension can damage multiple organs, specifically tissues of the cardiovascular

The cardiovascular system is the most important system in our body. Without the vital functions that the circulatory system performs, the human body would have no way of transporting blood to vital organs or the ability to transport oxygen and nutrients to cells in order to remove waste. This whole system plays a major role in maintaining physiological homeostasis (Farley and McLafferty, 2012). Understanding cardiac function plays a vital role in understanding how human physiology and anatomy coexist. How is cardiac function regulated?

Pheochromocytoma is a term used to refer to rare and mostly benign catecholamine-secreting tumors arising from the chromaffin cells found in the adrenal medulla or in the paraganglia (i.e. extra-adrenal pheochromocytoma). Clinical presentation can be highly variable and can mimic other diseases, but the condition typically presents with hypertension, palpitations, severe headaches and sweating.

In the middle of the 20th century, there were some reports about the dangerous association between epinephrine injected by contaminated glass syringes and clostridial gas gangrene [17]. Strikingly, the epinephrine in therapeutic concentrations can lead to a four log decrease in the infectious dose of Clostridium perfringens [17,24]. The low infectious dose

It is cancer that occurs in the adrenal glands when abnormal cells form in the gland or travel from another part of the body. It normally happens in the outer layer called the adrenal cortex. It forms as a tumor and can be either benign, which is not cancerous, or it can be cancerous. When it's a benign tumor, it is called benign adenomas. A cancerous tumor of the adrenal glands would be called an adrenal cortical carcinom. in 1886 Felix Frankel was the first person to say that someone had an adrenal tumor

The fight or flight response is a complex response that affects a great deal of the body. Initially, a signal travels to the brain, to which the amygdala responds. The amygdala sends a nerve impulse to the hypothalamus, which sends a chemical signal to the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland then releases a hormone that travels to the adrenal gland, along with the nerve impulse from the hypothalamus. Within the adrenal gland, the impulse initiates the release of epinephrine and adrenaline, which affect various cell types. Inside the adrenal gland, the adrenal cells are affected by the presence of the hormone and activate the G protein complex. This complex stimulates adenylate cyclase, which converts ATP into cAMP. cAMP activates the protein Kinase A, or PKA, which releases catalytic subunits. These subunits travel to the mitochondrial membrane and activate the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein. This protein mediates importing cholesterol into the mitochondria, which uses enzymes to convert the cholesterol into 17-OH-pregnenolone. The pregnenolone is then released to the endoplasmic reticulum,

Ephedrine is a stimulant, which is a substance that activates the body’s “fight or flight” system (sympathetic nervous system). Ephedrine relaxes muscles in the airways, which improves air flow in and out of the lungs. This increases the amount of air that the lungs can hold (lung capacity). Ephedrine also increases your heart rate. Some athletes use ephedrine and similar substances to try to improve their athletic performance.Ephedrine is the main active ingredient in herbal supplements known as ma huang or Ephedra. Substances similar to ephedrine include pseudoephedrine and phenylpropanolamine. Pseudoephedrine is found in some over-the-counter medicines that may be used to relieve nasal congestion.

Norepinephrine is a drug that helps with medical needs. It is often used by doctors in the emergency room and sometimes during surgery. The drug is also used outside of the hospital by the patient but at a minimal and safe concentrated level. It is to assist people who are experiencing difficulties with ADHD, Depression, and Low blood pressure. When your pressure drops during surgery or the emergency room, a specific dose of norepinephrine is injected into you. This helps and allows the doctors to control your blood pressure and keep you stable when you're in a complicated situation.

Norepinephrine ( NE) or noradrenaline (NA or NAd) is a catecholamine with multiple roles including as a hormone and a neurotransmitter. Noradrenaline (NA) is recognized as a key modulator in the regulation of multiple central nervous system (CNS) activities, such as mood changes [32], memory formation [33], stress response [34] and cellular energy metabolism [35], among others. Figure 5 shows the changes in the levels of norepinephrine for control rats and rats treated with EMF. No significant (p ≥ 0.05) changes in the concentration of norepinephrine were shown for the rats of control group. A significant increase in the content of

All active drugs should have no or minimal toxicity associated with their clinical application. Prodrug approaches can efficiently exploit to minimize toxicity of a specific drug candidate. Epinephrine is used to treat glaucoma which can cause several ophthalmic and systemic adverse effects. However, its ester prodrug dipivalylepinephrine exhibited enhanced bioavailability and lesser side effects than free epinephrine (Figure 5) (Mandell et al., 1978). Similar approaches were persuaded for a number of anti-inflammatory drugs where gastric irritation and bleeding are the most common side effects accompanied with their aaplication. Esterification of aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents was found to be significantly suppress

Adrenal glands, located near the kidneys, secrete several hormones that are activated by the nervous system. These hormones dictate the body’s reaction to stressful situations. Each person secretes a different amount of hormones, therefore affecting behavior in stressful situations differently (Morris & Maisto, 2005).