Epinephrine System

Under conditions of stress, the nervous system, via the SAM (sympathetic-adrenal-medullary) and HPA (hypothalamic-anterior pituitary-adrenal cortex) systems, produces neurotransmitters and hormones (such as cortisol and catecholamines) that bind to receptors on immune system cells;

Cortisol is also known as the “ The Stress Hormone” and “Public Health Enemy Number One” according to Christopher Bergland (1). Cortisol has its way in our bodies because with too much or to low our bodies will have problems. Even though having too much cortisol in our bodies is bad, it stills an essential part for our body because it influences and regulates many of the changes that occur in the body in response to stress (3).

Cortisol production is stimulated by ACTH secretion from the anterior pituitary via numerous feedback mechanisms according to the circadian rhythm, with peak levels in the early morning and smaller fluctuations throughout the day. ACTH secretion is stimulated by CRH in the hypothalamus which is stimulated by things such as: decreases in plasma cortisol, hypoglycemia, stress, and infection. Secretion of ACTH leads to conversion of cholesterol to cortisol in the zona fasciculata of the adrenal gland via various cytochrome P450 enzymes. Increased levels of cortisol itself cause negative feedback on the pituitary and hypothalamus. The zona glomerulosa is the site of production of Aldosterone, the principal mineralocorticoid, via similar mechanisms (cytochrome p 450.) Aldosterone production is stimulated by activation of the renin angiotensin system in response to decreased intravascular volume (sensed by baroreceptors), decreased sodium levels sensed in the macula densa of the nephron, and by the sympathetic nervous system in response to stress.

The adrenal medulla is stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system to release norepinephrane and epinephrine in response to stress.

Long-term alterations in the secretion include a glutocorticoid hormones cortisol via the hypothalamus pituitary adrenal access personal play crucial role in mediating the link between chronic stress exposure and ability to variety of diseases. (Stalder et al. 2012) Some of the biological consequences of such arousal were first identified by Selye (1956) as the General Adaptation Syndrome. Selye noted t h a t a principal characteristic of this response is an elevation in cortisol level. As a result of this early work and of more recent laboratory-based research, cortisol is now often regarded a s a "stress hormone" and as an objective marker of stress (Baum et al., 1982). (Pollard 1995)Registering for stressors cognitive affective states

The adrenal glands are an important part of our endocrine system. They secrete many vital hormones. There is two parts to the adrenals, a cortex and a medulla. The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine, norepinephrine and dopamine. Epinephrine is about eighty-percent of the activity, norepinephrine is about twenty-percent and dopamine only takes up a small amount. Epinephrine is also known as adrenaline and is involved in the fight or flight response. When a threat or stress is perceived, a signal is sent to the brain. The brain then sends nerve impulses to the adrenal medulla. When the nerve impulses reach the medulla, the chromaffin cells release epinephrine. Epinephrine is then released directly into the blood stream and is carried around the body to cells in the liver, skin, heart and lungs where it initiates several responses in order to help us survive whatever situation we are in. When these

It is put into the bloodstream after times of stress (8). Cortisol can be caused be lots of trans fats and high sugar diets, caffeine, and alcohol(4). Cortisol is produced in the adrenal glands (5) (8). Cortisol can also cause high blood sugar, acne, and weight gain (4). When cortisol is in the body it gives the body glucose be going to protein stores in the liver (5). This affects appetite in a person (5). Cortisol buildup happens when the body is exercised too much and there is no time to recover (3). All of this is made from the cholesterol in the adrenal glands (5). Cortisol is one of the natural occurrences, for the right purposes cortisol can help the body.

     Corticosteroids are released by the adrenal gland. Corticosteroids help to regulate protein and carbohydrate metabolism. They also influence the body's mineral and water balance in both males and females.

Cortisol is a steroid hormone, found in the glucocorticoids (GC) class of hormones. It controls many physiological processes, vital for the survival of humans. This includes “metabolism, immune response, cardiovascular activity, and brain function” (Chung et al. 2011). Over and above control functions, cortisol also helps regulate blood pressure and its use of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. There is a strong correlation between stressful situations and circulating cortisol levels. The body response to stressful physiological or psychological situations by increasing the amount of cortisol secreted. This secretion causes the breakdown of muscle protein, which leads to the release of amino acids into the bloodstream. These

One common theme in mental disorders (MD) is the alteration in the stress related brain system via the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. HPA axis is involved in regulating the immune system, mood, energy, digestion and temperature. It is pivotal in responses to distress, stress and damage. Activation of the stress system through the HPA axis causes central behavioral and peripheral changes that improve the body’s ability to maintain homeostasis (Tsigos and Chrousos, 2002). The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is the chief pathway that responds to stress. The principle hormones involved in the HPA axis are corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH), adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) and glucocorticoids (mainly cortisol in humans and corticosterone in rodents). Research suggests one possible biological link between stress, anxiety and depression may involve a corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) receptor (Magalhaes et al., 2010).

Stress generates autonomic and endocrine responses that promote physiological coping (Chrousos and Gold, 1992; Myers et al., 2013). Stress responses are initiated in part by brainstem noradrenergic (NE) neurons in the nucleus of the solitary tract (A2 region), as depletion of A2 NE neurons reduces pressor responses to psychosocial stressors (Duale et al., 2007; Daubert et al., 2012). Cardioavascular stress responses are likely mediated by rich A2 projections to central cardioregulatory circuits, including the ventrolateral medulla (Ross et al., 1985), preautonomic subdivisions of hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN) and/or the anteroventral subdivisions of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST) (Ricardo and Koh, 1978; Swanson and Sawchenko, 1982; Riche et al., 1990). The A2 region also sends direct projections to medial parvocellular corticotrophin-relasing hormone (CRH) (Sawchenko and Swanson, 1982) neurons, which are responsible for activation of hypothalamo-pituitary adrenocortical (HPA) axis responses (Plotsky et al.,

People experience various emotions in life such as; sorrow, doubt, pity, regret, glad, hopeful, greed, and anger; these feelings can all be explained because of the release of chemicals. Anger makes a person feel like they have relentless flame burning bright in their chest, and nothing can stop them until they get what they want. However the effects this feeling can have on a person can lead to rash decision making and possible emotional and physical damage to the angered person and people around him/her.

The adrenal glands produce and secret important hormones that help control heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, and the way the body reacts to stress or danger. (National Cancer Institute, 2014)

The release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortices is a major component of the cascade of physiological modifications elicited in response to a perceived stressor.

The effect of the secretion of cortisol to the pituitary gland is a reduction in the secretion of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and ACTH during states of stress (Lovallo, 2015). CRF helps to regulate the HPA axis and acts as a peptide transmitter for a system of neurons responsible for integrating sensory information with emotional states and behaviors, and shape hormonal responses that company thee emotions (Lovallo,