Unlike animals, plants are sessile though having the ability to adapt adverse stresses in their environment such as drought, cold, high salt, etc. When plants are stressed with these conditions, ABSCISIC ACID (ABA) level is increased in plants. The ABA triggers the adaptive responses which are required for the survival and productivity of plants. ABA is crucial phyto-hormone that mediates 10% of total transcriptional factors (TFs), which is higher compared to other phyto-hormones in Arabidopsis thaliana (Fujita et al., 2011). The vast numbers of genes which are induced by environmental conditions are activated by ABA. Among those genes, the members of bZIP family are expressed in ABA dependent manner during stressed conditions. …show more content…
They are Conserved domain 1 (C1), C2, C3 C4, and bZIP domain. Conserved domains 1, 2, and 3 have phosphorylation sites, so that these proteins are phosphorylated by kinase. Members of Sucrose Non-Fermenting 1 (SNF1)-Related protein Kinase 2s (SnRK2s) phosphorylate and positively control the AREBs/ABFs TFs (Fujita et al., 2013). bZIP domain has two regions, basic region which is responsible for DNA binding; and leucine zipper region responsible for homo or hetero dimerization (Mark, 2002). MECHANISM OF AREBs/ABFs REGULATION Once the plants go through abiotic stresses like drought, temperature, and salinity, ABA is produced to rescue the plants from these harsh conditions. ABA evokes signal transduction pathway leading to the activation of the members of SnRK2s, namely SnRK2.2, SnRK2.3 and SnRk2.6 (Fujita et al., 2013). The SnRK2s leads the activation of downstream AREBs/ABFs. SnRK2s are responsible for ABA-dependent phosphorylation of AREBs/ABFs in multiple phosphorylation sites (RXXS/T) in protein sequence (Figure 2) (Nicolas et al., 2014). AREB1/ABF2, AREB2/ABF4, ABF3, and ABF1 are the major TFs which are downstream of ABA-activated SnRK2s in ABA signalling pathway during vegetative growth. ABA and abiotic stresses induce gene expression through cis elements which include ABA response element (ABRE) in their promoters. AREBs/ABFs bind to the ABRE containing promoters in vitro or in yeast (Choi, et al., 2000; Finkelstein et al., 2000). ABRE is
Everything is everything in the world of short stories. Steinbeck's The Chrysanthemums is full of thick rhetoric that raises questions and stirs the mind and imagination. Everything from the title, to the last line needs to be thought about more than once. The story isn't just about a farmer's wife who likes pretty flowers. Not in the least! The Chrysanthemums is a story about how Elisa Allen is forced to a life that she feels is trapping her. The story is set in the early twentieth century and these times don't allow for just any woman to leave her ordinary, socially and politically correct life. Feminism is a large part of the story, and main character Elisa Allen's language, actions, and even the way she is described play a large
Since we have already known the amino sequence of the protein in previous step, we can narrow down the targeting ubiquitin ligase based on existing research data such as papers, NCBI data.
Many species of plants host microorganisms living inside the plant forming a mutually beneficial endosymbiosis. Bacteria or fungi that reside within plant tissue (roots, stems, and/or leaves) are referred to as endophytes. These endophyte communities may help to improve a plant’s fitness by promoting growth, protecting against disease, or facilitating nutrient acquisition. More specifically, endophytes within the plant community can help plants respond to stress that develops from biotic or abiotic influences like pests, heat, drought, saline, and soil conditions (Russell et al., 2003) Endophytes can help plants become better able to tolerate stress by allocating resources from one place to another (Rodriguez et al., 2009). Therefore,
Robert Deal from Emory University is studying to learn about plants and their memory of stress. When plants face dry weather, their stomata shrink to reduce water loss. When a similar situation places the plants under stress again, the plant seems to recall this experience and recovers quicker. Robert Deal, who studies genetics and biochemistry, hopes to utilize this trait and pinpoint its gene. If he can locate and activate the genetic material associated with this memory, he believes he can speed up the process and cause plants to have the gene activated at all times, allowing the plants to withstand drier and warmer temperatures.
The poem “Thanatopsis” by William Cullen Bryant reveals a very unusual aspect of nature. While most people think of nature as beauty and full of life, Bryant takes a more interesting approach to nature. He exposes a correlation between nature, life, death, and re-birth. Using nature as a foothold, Bryant exercises methods such as tone, setting, and imagery in a very intriguing way while writing “Thanatopsis.”
Auxins is one of the five major classes of plant hormones. The functions of auxins include elongation of the stem, as well as promoting root growth, and another function includes acting in phototropism and gravitropism. Phototropism is essentially response to a light stimulates; gravitropism is response to gravity. Plants have the capacity to detect light and sense gravity. The cells furthest from the light have auxin which reacts to phototropism. The plant furthest from the light will have elongated cells. The auxin hormones bind to plasma membrane receptors, this will activate the proton pump. This proton pump will diffuse hydrogen ions out of the cell which in turn has many effects. The effects include the cell wall loosening, the turgor pressure of the cell will increase because water is entering the cell, and the cells will enlarge.
The traits of being mobile or stationary has effected how these two supergroups respond to stimuli in their environments. Both plants and animals may be affected by similar biotic and abiotic stimuli such as environmental stresses, sunlight,
As is relevant plants can adapt quickly to stressful conditions. Oak trees create a deep taproot in search of water, along with a very broad lateral root system to help stabilize the tree in high winds. In pines, the needles have a long, slender shape reducing leaf area, which in turn reduces the amounts of water vapor escaping the leaf. Plants are able to strengthen their defenses by preserving memories of stress to enable stronger and more rapid responses if the same type of stress were to reoccur. Plant memory, in particular epigenetic memory, is speculated to complement genetic selection by providing means to adapt, increasing acclimation and even adaptations. (Crisp 2016) In the article reconsidering plant memory: Intersections between
Cytokines and Gibberellins are known as two of the five major plant phytohormones acknowledged to contain a major impact on plant growth. They regulate plant growth and respond to environmental stress conditions. Cytokines hormone plays a role in the promoting of shoot initiation, the development of plant organs, and plant cell differentiation. The roles of gibberellins include stimulation of stem elongation, germination, seed dormancy, and the maturation of fruit and flowers. The phytohormones are customized, delivery or converted, which gives plants the ability to grown and respond against stress environments. Gibberellins have recently been discovered to be one of the main hormones that respond against abiotic stress such as wind and drought. Low levels of gibberellins have controlled plant growth restriction. This allowed plants to use their resources at a more conservative level in times of cold weather and salinity increase. On the other hand, increasing gibberellins levels allows plant to respond to plant growth allowing it to escape shady conditions and reach light. However, despite the acknowledgements of those two plant hormones in relation to regulation of plant growth, environmental stress will negatively impact the
All plants are subjected to a multitude of stresses throughout their life cycle. Depending on the species of plant and the source of the stress, the plant will respond in different ways. When a certain tolerance level is reached, the plant will eventually die. When the plants in question are crop plants, then a problem arises. The two major environmental factors that currently reduce plant productivity are drought and salinity (Serrano, 1999), and these stresses cause similar reactions in plants due to water stress. These environmental concerns affect plants more than is commonly thought. For example, disease and insect loss typically decrease crop yields by less than ten percent, but severe
Corsican hares prefer bushy areas with alternating clearings and not close to sea level. They may also live by cropland, Mediterranean vegetation, and forests. Italian hares are nocturnal, foraging in the night, and staying in the home during the day.
The class Leu, Trp, Ade dropout plates (Table 2) showed that there are interactions between the Bub1B protein produced between 186 and 613 bp on the Bub1B1 gene and CDC20 protein, as shown in Figure 1. There are interactions between the Bub1B protein produced between 328 and 588 bp and BUB3 protein. There are interactions between the Bub1B protein produced between 588 and 1052 bp and Ppp2r5c protein. There are no interactions between the Bub1B and Zfp207
Drought resistant meaning a plant that can lose 80% of its water and regenerate and continue growing when moisture is present. We can achieve this by implementing resurrection plant genes into the world’s current plants. Flowering plants or scientifically known as angiosperms are plants that have flowers, and produce a seed within a carpel. Angiosperms are a big group of plants, most trees, grasses, shrubs and herbaceous plants are all under that angiosperm family. The first flowering plants were dated to be from around one hundred and sixty million years ago. All angiosperm plants have a common ancestor. Meaning that all angiosperm plants evolved from a single common ancestor which they inherited much of their biochemistry from. The common ancestor is the link in the genetic codes between its far off modern day angiosperm decedents. The genes for surviving severe desiccation are usually only expressed when a plant is in the seed. It is commonly known that seeds are built to survive extreme environments. They are also almost non reliant on water, only needing to retain 8%-10% of moisture. Only resurrection plants retain the expression until maturation. By using these genes that are already present in the plant but just not expressed while in adult form, we will be able to produce a new species of crop that are drought resistant staple foods. This will not be the cure to all of the world’s hunger, but it will effectively move us one step closer to
To understand the timing of FLC activation in embryogenesis, the author first examine when FLC is reactivated using an FLC:: GUS reporter line. They found that FLC expression was activated in pro-embryo within 1 day after pollination and onwards from both non-vernalized parental plants and vernalized parental plants, despite that FLC expression is lower from vernalized plants than that from none-vernalized plants. These results were further confirmed by in situ mRNA hybridization. Then the author postulated that LEC1, a master embryo transcription factor and expressed in the pro-embryo and throughout embryogenesis, is a good candidate required for embryonic de novo FLC activation. To support their hypothesis, the author first introduced loss of function null lec1 allele in FRI-Col and found that this FLC-dependent later flowering phenotype was suppressed. Next, they crossed lec1 with FLC:: GUS line and found that FLC expression was suppressed in the pro-embryo stage and onwards. These results suggest that LEC1 reactivate FLC expression in early embryogenesis and onwards in non-vernalized plants. To explore whether LEC1 could reactivate FLC expression after parental vernalization, the FLC expression was traced for two generations in LEC1/lec1 seedlings by FLC-GUS reporter. FLC was fully activated in LEC1/lec1 before cold and silenced after vernalization, and the
There are several essential factors that contribute to the quality of life society enjoys today. One of these factors is the ability to produce crops such as corn, soybeans, wheat, cotton, and several others. On occasion these crops experience stressors. These stressors can be from abiotic or biotic factors. Biotic stressors mainly include insect herbivores, whereas abiotic stressor mainly include temperature and water or lack thereof. It is vital to understand how crop react to these stressor in order to predict and possibly contradict the effect on the crops. When dealing with insect herbivores the outcome can be devastating. Insects can destroy large amounts of crops. To prevent insects from destroying crop, insecticides are used as well as transgenic crops are used. Abiotic factors such as drought can be more difficult. The total amount of semi-arid land on earth is one-third, and the rest of the land experiences unexpected drought occasionally (Fang and Xiong, 2015). This means that nearly all the crops in the world are at risk of experiencing some kind of water shortage. Due to these abiotic and biotic stressors, and extensive amount of research has been conducted and is still being conducted to minimize the negative effects. In the following sections will be an overview of the abiotic and biotic factors along with the crops response to each, as well as the genetic mechanisms studied to improve a crops ability to cope with these stressors.