Essay On Pluripotent Cells For Toxicology

The use of selective chemical inhibitors of human cytochrome P450 enzymes is a powerful method by which the relative contributions of different human P450 enzymes to the drug metabolism can be obtained. However, the contribution of CYP2B6 in the metabolism is more challenging due to the lack of a well-established inhibitor.

Pluripotent stem cells are the stem cells that can only differentiate into a limited range of differentiated cells. (2) They have the ability to give rise to all somatic cells from ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm, as well as gametes. Naturally it can be found in embryos as Embryonic stem cells (ES cells). Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells or iPSC) are the pluripotent stem cells that are generated directly from adult cells, first discovered by Shinya Yamanaka in 2006 by using a set of reprogramming factors (Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, and c-Myc or LIN28 and Nanog) (3) to reprogram mature cells back to a pluripotent state (4).

Absorption – “How the drugs enter the circulation process through the body, and how they resist general breakdown by the stomach, liver, and the intestines”. Some of the factors that affect the absorption of drugs in the body is as follows, “acidity of the stomach, Physiochemical properties, Presence of food in the stomach or intestine, and Routes of administration”,

Attempts were made to fertilize mammalian eggs outside of the human body and in the early 1900s, it was discovered that some cells had the ability to generate blood cells. In 1968, the first bone marrow transplant was performed to successfully to treat patient’s severe combined immunodeficiency. There have been many stem cell discoveries since the early 1900’s but the two majors were in 1998 when, Thompson, from the University of Wisconsin, isolated cells from the inner cell mass of early embryos and developed the first embryonic stem cell lines. Then, in 1999 and 2000, scientists discovered that manipulating adult mouse tissues could produce different cell types.

Over time, the use of human stem cells has proven to be monumental in research, particularly in the field of disease modeling and drug development for treatments of diseases. However, there are many barriers that come with using human stem cells, specifically embryonic stem cells (ESCs), mainly due to the fact that they must come from either

Medically stem cell research shows promising results in the fight against cancer, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and other diseases and tissue failure. Adult stem cells have already been used to cure abnormalities in blood. On the other hand ESC have not been used on humans, but they have showed promising

Xenobiotic metabolism is usually divided to phase I and II, where polar function groups are unmasked or introduced to the chemical structure (phase I or activation), followed by the conjugation between the xenobiotic and endogenous molecules, notably glucuronic acid, to further improve hydrophilicity (phase II or conjugation) (Golan 2012). Hepatic microsomal P450 are the enzymes that dominate the catalysis of phase I metabolism of xenobiotics (Table 1 and 2) (Anzenbacher and Anzenbacherova 2001). Therefore,

The creation of induced pluripotent stem cells by direct reprogramming has allowed for the circumvention of using embryonic stem cells while still leaving the cells with the ability to maintain pluripotency. Instead of ES cells which were originally derived from the epiblast of mouse embryos, IPS cells were generated from mouse embryonic fibroblasts. This eliminated both any ethical concerns for whether those cells were a living being or not and the need to destroy embryos at the blastocyst stage. An advantage of IPS cells is that they are derived from human somatic cells which makes them easy to acquire due to the possibility of using skin or blood cells. They can also be grown and differentiated individually for each person that the sample of somatic cells is taken from which eliminates the possibility of having any immune reaction and rejection to the differentiated cells during transplantation. These characteristics of IPS cells are important because they are what enables us to safely and accurately transform these affected cells from patients cells into neurons and confidently study them.

Researchers successfully attained embryonic stem cells from the embryos of mice in 1981, which led to the discovery of this process in human beings in 1998 (National Institutes of Health, 2001). Embryonic stem cells are derived from an in vitro embryo between five days and seven weeks. Regenerative medicine can benefit greatly from the characteristics of embryonic stem cells. This process enables damaged organs and tissues to heal themselves with the help of implanted stem cells matching the organ (Hunziker, 2010, p. 1). There are two traits

Many scientists believe that embryonic stem cell (ESC) research is the key to curing diseases such as cancer and HIV. Stem cells are so important to biomedical research because they are primitive cells that are capable of replicating indefinitely producing a multitude of different types of cells. This means that one of these pre-determined cells has to potential of becoming any range of over two hundred tissues with epithelial cells to blood and

As technology advances, the use of embryonic stem cell research has also expanded. Stem cells have shown promise in personalized medicine as they are undifferentiated and easily conform with the surrounding cells. There are two areas of research that stem cells are showing massive potential, cell regeneration and organ transplantation. It is thought that stem cells have the capability to “model genetic disorders in a reliable fashion such that no other method allows. It seems likely that we could use stem cells to model cells with genetic disorders and figure out how to mute certain genes, thus eliminating or drastically reducing the effects of the disease,” (1). Although embryonic stem cells (ESC) are showing great potential towards medical advancements, there are many people who are opposed to the idea of using these cells due to the aggressive nature in which we extract ESC.

The majority of acetaminophen, approximately 90%, will be metabolized by glucuronidation (Lancaster et al., 2015). Approximately 10% will be metabolized by cytochrome p450 (Lancaster et al., 2015). From there it will become the reactive metabolite N-acetyl-p-benzo-quinone imine (NAPQI) (Lancaster et al., 2015). Under normal circumstances, glutathione (GSH) will convert NAPQI to a nontoxic metabolite (Lancaster et al., 2015). In cases where GSH depletion is present due to acetaminophen overdose, malnutrition, or alcoholism, NAPQI cannot be converted, leading to increased NAPQI levels and subsequently liver damage (Lancaster et al.,

For years, scientists and doctors have been looking for ways to prolong human life. Medicine has evolved over the years; surgeries have become less invasive and treatments have become more effective for diseases such as Smallpox, Malaria, and Measles all of which have been nearly eradicated. Recently, scientists are confident they have found a way to provide an effective treatment for diseases like Parkinson’s and Alzheimer's. Additionally, they believe they have found a way to reverse the effects of paralysis caused by serious injuries. For this essay, stem cells can be defined as undifferentiated cells in the human body that can transform into any type of cell. There are two types of stem cells that have been researched by scientists, adult stem cells,

CYP-induced cystitis model displays a local inflammation, associated with an increase in voiding frequency and a decrease in urine volume per void. Consequently, the CYP-induced cystitis model is widely used in rats and mice to characterize new inflammatory and nociceptive pathways, and identify new mediators. Conventionally, the chemical cystitis group was induced by a single intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of CYP endotoxin, which is a antineoplastic agent that ultimately results in the formation of acrolein in the liver of patients treated with this drug, thus damaging the bladder urothelium and causing hemorrhagic cystitis as well as some other complications. Moreover, Creative Biolabs offers preclinical assessment services, which typically include, but not limited

iPSCs are adult stem cells that have been genetically reprogrammed to behave like the pluripotent stem cells found in embryos, i.e. can differentiate into any cell type in the human body. This was first completed successfully in mice in 2006 by Shinya Yamanaka and his team (Takahashi et al., 2006), then in humans in 2007 both by Yamanaka (Takahashi et al., 2007), and by James Thomson and his team in America independently (Yu, et al., 2007). Yamanaka and Thomson’s methods were similar. In the report by Yu et