Ethics In Animal Testing

Pink colored spermatozoa (sperm) were surrounded by spermatocytes (formed after meiosis of spermatogonia) and spermotigonia (precursor to sperm)

Semen is composed of sperm and secretions from three exocrine glands-the seminal vesicles, bulbourethral glands, and the prostate gland. 3. Seminiferous tubules are located in the testes- the vas deferens is not; there is more than one seminiferous tubule-there is only one vas deferens; seminiferous tubules have meiotic cells in their walls-the vas deferens does not; and the vas deferens has abundant smooth muscle cells in its wall-seminiferous tubules do not. 4. The sperm’s flagellum enables it to swim to an egg, and its head contains digestive enzymes that help it penetrate the egg’s outer layers.

Three notable similarities between the rat, human, and bull sperm were observed. Firstly, all of the sperm cells had a head. Secondly, the sperm calls all had tails that were much larger in comparison to

Semen is the male reproductive fluid, containing spermatozoa in suspension. Sperm is a male reproductive cell. Prostate is a gland surrounding the neck of the bladder in male mammals and releasing prostatic fluid. Urethra is a duct by which urine is convey out of the body from the bladder, and which in male vertebrates also conveys semen. Penis is the male genital organ of higher vertebrates, carrying the duct for the transfer of sperm during copulation. Glans is the head of a penis. A shaft is the cylindrical part of the penis between the scrotum and head. Seminiferous tubules is any of the numerous long convoluted tubules in the testis which are the sites where spermatozoa mature. Seminal vesicles is each of a pair of glands that open into the vas deferens near its junction with the urethra and secrete many of the components of semen. Bladder is a membranous sac in human and other animals, which urine is collected for excretion.

The scale of the testicles is well correlated to the synthesis functionality of the sperm and further gonadal sperm reserves [Parkinson et al., 2004]. The scrotal circumference is the best and the most sophisticated device for estimating the mass of the reproductive organs [Lino et al., 1972; Notter et al., 1987] and the level of testes development [Lunstra et al., 1978] inside the animal. The testicle circumference and histological sections were assessed to determine the efficacy of the vaccine on gonadal features. Analysis of the sub-physiological contents of testicles revealed a direct relationship between the steroid and spermatogenic production. Our research finding shows that the vaccine has a strong effect on the scrotal circumference of immunized ram lambs compared with the control ram lambs (P < 0.05). Furthermore, the microscopic histological outcomes of testicles indicate that the vaccinated ram lambs indicated lower masses of spermatogonium, spermatocytes, and spermatids. The histological observation revealed smaller seminiferous

Motile sperm refers to the number of sperm that is able to move through the female reproductive tract and curvilinear velocity refers to the velocity of the actual path that the sperm takes (Kubus). The researchers found significant differences between sneaker male sperm versus nesting male sperm. Nesting male sperm moves faster and with better motility after initial activation, which is when fertilization is most likely to occur. The sneaker male sperm curvilinear velocity decelerates at a slower rate than nesting male sperm, meaning sneaker male sperm will be faster as time goes on. Although nesting male sperm is of a better quality, it seems that the presence of the ovarian fluid does not favor it in particular. If paternity were based on male type, then there would be a significant increase in paternity of nesting males as the proportion of nesting male sperm increased. This was not seen and found not to be significant. The sperm number was only found to be significant in the absence of ovarian fluid, indicating that ovarian fluid reduces the importance of sperm number on paternity. The researchers also found significance in sperm curvilinear velocity on paternity, in which nesting males have the advantage over sneaker

Since the fourth-century, animal testing has contributed to significant improvement in the length and quality of human lives. Nevertheless, it causes many damages to the animals and surrounded. To reduce the harmful effects of animal testing, The National Advisory Committee for Laboratory Animal Research (NACLAR) set out the international guidelines for the usage of animals for research and scientific purposes. In addition to the harmful effects of animal testing on animals and environment, animal testing is considered unbeneficial to humans. Animals are very different from humans. They have different genes, different proteins, and different metabolic pathways. Therefore, drugs that may be effective in animals may not be safe or effective

All animals have normal descended testes. They were very small, freely movable to the inguinal region. Anesthesia induction was smooth and took (8±2 minutes). Surgical anesthesia with Xylazine-Ketamine combination was light. Animals showed movements due to intervention. Hypothermia and bradycardia in all animals were recorded. Maintenance of anesthesia with halothane in a glass mask offered good surgical anesthesia. Respiratory rate decreased and respiration was superficial and shallow (Figure 3). The procedure was feasible and the mean operative time was (17±2 minutes). Minute bleeding is due to skin incision. No post-operative bleeding, swelling, edema or exudates were recoded. Penile deviation was noticed in one cat. Cosmetic appearance was

A total of 499 potentially relevant citations were identified through the search strategy on electronic data bases with other reference sources and information provided by relevant experts (Figure 2). 132 articles were collected as full text for quality assessment and inclusion. From the overall pool of full text papers, a total of 20 articles (n = 2450), received the minimum quality assessment score and met the inclusion criteria (Table 2,3,4). Of the 20 studies included, 4 studies (n = 740) evaluated the effect of dietary habits and food intake on semen parameters and quality [2, 25, 27, 33], 4 studies (n = 232) evaluated the effect of carnitine consumption on sperm parameters and quality [39-42], 3 studies (n = 148) investigated the effect of Selenium on sperm parameters [43-45], 2 studies (n = 481) evaluated the effect of Coenzyme Q10 on sperm quality and parameters [46, 47] and each of the remaining articles investigated the effect of saffron, soy based foods, vitamin C, clomiphene citrate, omega-3 poly unsaturated fatty acids, beta carotene and ubiquinol on sperm parameters [48-54]. The 20 articles included patients from 9 different countries including, Iran (6 articles) [2, 46-48, 52, 54], USA (4 articles) [27, 39, 43, 49], Italy (3 articles) [40-42], Egypt (2 articles) [51, 53], UK (1 article) [45], Germany (1 article) [50], Poland (1 article) [44], Spain (1 article) [33] and Brazil (1 article) [25].

Testes are kept in the scrotum sac and are two oval shaped glands, about 8,5cm long and 2.5cm wide. A midline septum divides the scrotum into two halves and each testical is covered in two tunics; the Tunica vaginalis from the peritoneum and the Tunica albuginea which is a deeper tunic and a fibrous capsule. The septa from this layer then divides the testes into 250 – 300 wedge shaped compartments or lobules. It is in these lobules that seminiferous tubules are found, where sperm is made. Each lobule contains about 1 – 4 seminiferous tubules. The network into which seminiferous tubules empty is called the Rete testis. After which, the epididymis receives sperm from the rete testis network.

The male reproductive system is in charge of making healthy sperm(male sex cell) and making sure that it successfully reaches the egg of the female. As most systems are, the male reproductive system is a combination of many components. It all starts at the seminiferous tubules within the testes, where the sperm is created, however, the testes create hormones that regulate the production of sperm. Surrounding the testes is the scrotum, a sac of skin that keeps the sperm at about 3 degrees Celsius below body temperature. After the sperm matures, it is stored in the epididymis until ejaculation occurs, during ejaculation, the epididymis contracts, releasing the sperm into the vas deferens, a long tube that connects the urethra and the epididymis. The sperm then passes by 3 glands, the seminal vesicle which provides sugars, the prostate gland which provides an alkaline fluid for protection and finally the Cowper's gland which provides a lubricant for the sperm to travel in. This mixture of substances, called semen is ejaculated out the urethra and finally the penis and hopefully into the female’s reproductive system. However the penis must be erect for the sperm to successfully enter the female’s vagina, this is where erectile tissue comes in, the tissue is inflated with blood, keeping the penis erect and ensuring that the sperm enters the vagina.

As we are removing the eggs form the female mice it is important that a specially trained professional conducts this procedure to ensure no harm comes to the animals. The process for obtaining the sperm requires the male mice to be euthanised, and this will be conducted by a veterinary nurse. It is also vital to carefully watch the development of the mice, after the treatment, in case any unintended genetic mutations have occurred which could cause pain or decrease the quality of life of the mice. If such instance occurs, a trained veterinarian must humanely euthanise the animal to end their suffering.

In addition, consistent with the low density of spermatogonia, spermatids and seminiferous tubules observed in testicles, the mRNA expressions of LH-β and FSH-β in the pituitary gland were both significantly decreased after immunocastration in the treated rams. The result is in agreement with the findings of [Wei et al., 2011] in rabbit and [Fang et al., 2010] in boar that GNRHR mRNA expression in the pituitary was significantly decreased in immunocastrated animals. Furthermore, [Sakurai et al., 1992] reported that there was a reduction of GNRHR mRNA in the pituitary and protein concentration after passive immunocastration of male sheep. Another group showed that the amount of GNRHR was significantly lower in the sheep that were immunized

All of the procedures using research animals were approved by Institutional Animal ethical committee of Integral University, Lucknow, India.

Also, MSCs existed in interstitial connective tissue between the seminiferous tubules and their morphology was like leydig cells. The number of spermatogonia, primary spermatocytes and spermatozoids in busulfan treated animals were decreased significantly as compared to the control group but SCs therapy helped the spermatogenesis to begin more effective in these animals. Also, Ghasemzadeh-Hasankolaei et al. (2016) studied the transplantation of autologous BM-MSCs into the testes of infertile male rats. The authors found that the autologous BM-MSCs could survive in the testis, migrated onto the seminiferous tubules basement membrane and differentiated into spermatogonia. Although, no more differentiation was observed of the produced spermatogonia, the authors suggested that generation of such endogenous germ cells was really promising achievement for treatment of male infertility using autologous stem cells.