Examples Of Reconstructive Memory

Memory is never a literal recount of past experiences. Rather, it is dependent on the constructive processes present at the time of encoding that are subject to potential errors and distortions. Essentially, the constructive memory process functions by encoding the patterns of physical characteristics that are perceived by the individual, as well as the interpretive conceptual and semantic functions that act in response to the incoming

The study of creation of false memories has been a topic of interest since the 1930s when Bartlett (1932) conducted the first experiment on the topic. Though the results of this experiment were never replicated, they contributed greatly to research by distinguishing between reproductive and reconstructive memory (Bartlett 1932 as cited in Roediger & McDermott, 1995). Reproductive memory refers to accurate production of material from memory and is assumed to be associated with remembering simplified materials (e.g., lists). Reconstructive memory emphasizes the active process of filling in missing elements while remembering and is associated with materials rich in meaning (e.g., stories).

However, studies have shown that a mere recollection of events can be erroneous. Bartlett (1932) proposed the theory of reconstructive memory: the concept that human memory is fallible and may be distorted by many factors surrounding an individual (past experiences, prior knowledge, emotional attachment, and several others). This understanding and knowledge of previous events are more commonly known as schemas (Brewer & Nakamura, 1984). Bartlett (1932) defined a schema as ‘an active organization of past reactions, or of past experiences, which must always be supposed to be operating in any well-adapted organize

Memory is a capacity that humans rely upon to relate to different events, experiences, conditions, and people. It is a vitally important process and system whereby the brain receives information from (external or internal) stimuli, stores it (encoding), and makes it available on a future occasion (retrieval). It provides continuity to people’s experiences across different periods of time.

Only rarely does memory seem markedly resistent to distortion (e.g., Oeberst & Blank, 2012). Many studies have sucessfully demonstrated and replicated the implantation of episodic false memories in the minds of participants (e.g.; Bernstein et al., 2005; Laney & Loftus, 2008; Nash & Wade, 2009). Internal and external sources such as imagination and interview techniques appear to aid the construction of a false episodic memories (e.g., Frenda et al.,

In this paper I will revisit Russon’s definition of memory, and three of the aspects that he presents as important in the memory process. I will also argue that our body play an important role for our remembering, as does the objects we interact with. As well as present my position on Russon description of memory demonstrating that Russon’s description is indeed relatable to the actual human experience.

When forgotten and then remembered, the memory requires some form of restabilization such that the new information can re-incorporate itself with existing memory. Processual memory can be used in this context as well as when given new information or experience, a person’s association with an existing memory can change. No two memories are the same, which is why even the recirculation of memory can become corrupt over time and differ from the truth in relation to a process also known as “Rememory” as seen in Toni Morrison’s Beloved. The act of memory preservation is impossible as over enough time the memory will be muddled and the true context of the event will be forgotten. It is a process that we are unaware of until explicitly focused on because when people remember something that was once forgotten and the original memory is re-written it consolidates the image of that memory as the original. For example, if someone was remembering himself or herself as the star of a child play it could be a reformatted version of a memory of the play that was less than stellar. The idea of memory consolidation is to form coherent memory that people convince themselves to be true even if not recognized as the whole truth by reconstructing past

The sole purpose of this experiment was to test the accuracy of eyewitness accounts. It was hypothesized that more than 50% of the questions asked would be incorrect. The results fully support the hypothesis. Out of the five questions that were asked, only one was answered correctly by both participants. One of the major factors affecting the reliability of eyewitness testimony is reconstructive memory. Reconstructive memory refers to the idea that the retrieval of memories does not occur in the accurate form but rather as a recollection of memories involving a process of trying to reconstruct past events, This idea was first produced by Sir Fredrick Bartlett where he suggested that certain pieces of information is stored and when it time to recall it, the pieces are then reconstructed based on personal interpretation. (McLeod, 2009) It is also believed that if new information is introduced after the event but before the actual recalling of the event, then the newly introduced information would have tremendous influence on what the person actually recalls. Therefore, memory can be regarded as flexible in nature.

In all the discussions and lessons on memory this week, a somewhat shocking bit of information I found to be an “Aha!” moment was the idea of reconstructed memory. This idea is found in the Ted Talk by Scott Fraser, where he explains, “With no requirement for any kind of motivated processing, the brain fills in information that was not there, not originally stored, from inference, from speculation, from sources of information that came to you, as the observer, after the observation.” He continues, “But it happens without awareness, such that you aren't even cognizant of it occurring”. (Fraser, 2012) This came as a shock to me as, in my 30 odd years of memory and cognitive thought, did I ever think I was capable of remembering something I personally

Human memory is a complex cognitive structure, which can be defined in many ways. One would argue that memory is 1.) The mental function of retaining information about stimuli, event, images, ideas, etc. after the original stimuli is no longer present. 2.) The hypothesized storage system in the mind that holds this information is so retained. A clear distinction is made between different types of memory systems and can be divided into subclasses.

Memory attributions are based on various qualitative features of the mental experience. Previous studies have found that despite one experiences an intuitive sense of memory, in which the person believes to be an accurate recording of an encounter; empirical results have shown that this experience can be a reconstructive process, which can lead to the development of false memories (Farrants, 1998; Schacter and Addis, 2007). Past researchers have referred ‘false memories’ as memories that took place within experiments, but experiences that do not correspond to experimentally presented stimuli (Roediger & McDermott, 1995; McDermott, 1996; Payne et al., 1996; Read, 1996; Robinson & Roediger, 1997 cited in Gleaves, Smith, Butler & Spiegel, 2004).

The misinformation effect occurs when misleading information is presented after a person witnesses an event and changes how the person describes the event later. The longer the time between witnessing the event and the recall, the stronger the misinformation effect gets. The misinformation effect can cause very negative outcomes, especially in criminal cases in which an individual is wrongfully accused of a crime after a witness’s recollection of a suspect is influenced by authorities. Misinformation has the potential for occupying our memories when we talk to other people, when we are interrogated by people of high authority, and even when we view media coverage about an event. While I cannot think of a time that the misinformation effect

Memory does not work like a video camera, smoothly recording every detail. Instead, memory is more of a constructive process. We remember the details that we find most important and relevant. Due to the reconstructive nature of memory, the assimilation of old and new information has the ability to cause vulnerable memories to become distorted. This is also known as the misinformation effect (Loftus, 1997). It is not uncommon for individuals to fill in memory gaps with what they assume they must have experienced. We not only distort memories for events that we have observed, but, we may also have false memories for events that never occurred at all. False memories are “often created by combing actual memories with suggestions received from

Memory makes us. It is, to an extent, a collection of unique and personal experiences that we, as individuals, have amassed over our lifetime. It is what connects us to our past and what shapes our present and the future. If we are unable remember the what, when, where, and who of our everyday lives, our level of functioning would be greatly impacted. Memory is defined as or recognized as the “sum or total of what we remember.” Memory provides us the ability to learn and adjust to or from prior experiences. In addition, memory or our ability to remember plays an integral role in the building and sustaining of relationships. Additionally, memory is also a process; it is how we internalize and store our external environment and experiences. It entails the capacity to remember past experiences, and the process of recalling previous experiences, information, impressions, habits and skills to awareness. It is the storage of materials learned and/or retained from our experiences. This fact is demonstrated by the modification, adjustment and/or adaptation of structure or behavior. Furthermore, we as individuals, envision thoughts and ideas of the present through short-term memory, or in our working memory, we warehouse past experiences and learned values in long-term memory, also referred to as episodic or semantic memory. Most importantly, memory is malleable and it is intimately linked to our sense of identity and where we believe we belong in the world.

Memory facilitates necessary functions in daily life activities, but it is not a perfect mechanism in operation. Goldstein (2011) states that memory is, “…the process involved in retaining, retrieving, and using information about stimuli, images, events, ideas, and skills after the original information is no longer present” (p.116). There are many adaptive functions within the complexities of the human memory system and the interlinked constructs between each function leave room for doubt in the accuracy of recollection. Study of the human mind has opened avenues of discovery on the inner workings of our brains and the resulting knowledge suggests that humans are prone to creating false memories and even remembering things that never actually happened. A great deal of information has been written explaining the nature of memory errors and within the following pages a real-life case offers a glimpse into how recall distortions and memory errors can wield unpleasant consequences. Memory errors can be avoided with a significant effort, but the truth remains that no one is perfect and memories are subject to individual bias.