Expression Of The Long Non Coding Rna

Finally it was found that a total of 62.1 % to about a 74.7% of the human genome was covered by either proceed or by the help of primary transcript.

Recent advantages in genome-wide analyses have revealed that roughly 90% of the human genome is transcribed, yet less than 3% of the genome consists of protein-coding genes (Wu et al., 2013). The remaining genes are transcribed as noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), which resemble mRNA in length and splicing structures yet do not encode any proteins (Wu et al., 2013). It has been debated whether all of the ncRNA transcripts are functional due to their low expression levels and low evolutionary conservation. However, many functional ncRNA have

MicroRNAs (miRNA) are small noncoding RNA, usually 17-25 nucleotides long that are able to bind complementary sequences of target messenger RNA (mRNA) and to induce both their degradation and translational repression (Fortunato, et al 2014). They are one of the most significant classes of non-coding RNA molecules (eg. small interfering RNA (siRNA) and ribozymes) that act within the cell. MiRNAs are also evolutionary conserved in different species from plants to humans and are encoded by their respective genes (Bader, 2012).

In the second paper, “Novel RNA Modifications in the Nervous System: Form and Function,” Lee discusses the role of several novel RNA modification in the physiological setting of the nervous system. RNA editing plays a major role in many pathologies; for example, loss of normal function in an m6a demethylase, FTO, has been connected with cancer, ADHD, and Alzheimer’s. Other RNA modifications are necessary for proper development of the central nervous system. NSUN2 is an m5C RNA modification heavily implicated in embryogenesis, especially in the brain. Mutation of the NSUN2 gene is correlated with intellectual disability, developmental delay, and facial dysmorphism. The aforementioned A-to-I RNA edit is also enriched in the brain, and is necessary for the proper function of genes such as GluA2, which without modification leads to postnatal death. GluA2 is also implicated in glutamate reception by neurons, and consequently in the mechanisms of addiction. Furthermore, A-to-I RNA editing failure been linked with several chronic diseases, including

The RNA-induced-silencing complex is used for gene regulation and in defense against viral and bacterial infections. The RISC is loaded with small dsRNAs that will guide the complex through base-pairing interactions to specific messenger RNA targets, which the RISC will help degrade. Once degraded, no more protein can be made from these mRNAs. The RNA-induced silencing complex can silence targeted genes through several mechanisms. It can work to repress translation during protein synthesis, interfere with the transcript level through mRNA degradation, or work at the level of the genome itself and eliminate DNA/form degrading materials. Heterochromatin is a degrading material that can be created to modify or suppress genes in the RISC (MacRae

Transactive response DNA binding protein 43 (TDP-43) has a molecular mass of 43 kDa and a multidomain structure that is composed of 414 amino acids, which is encoded by TARDBP (Bozzo et al., 2016; Chang et al., 2012; Igaz et al., 2011; Koyama et al., 2016). TDP-43 is a highly conserved DNA binding protein located in the nucleus for gene transcription (Chang et al., Igaz et al., 2011; 2012; Koyama et al., 2016; Neumann et al., 2006; Xu et al., 2012). However, a large number of RNA binding sites have been identified for TDP-43 that allow for pre-mRNA splicing and translational regulation including its own 3’ untranslated region 3’UTR (Ayala et al., 2011; Chang et al., 2012; Koyama et al., 2016; Xu et al., 2012). Similar to SOD1, TDP-43 is

CENP-A is present in the cell at a very low stoichiometric concentration compared to its homologue H3. Still, the CENP-A nucleosome specifically localizes to the centromere and assembles kinetochore. How the CENP-A nucleosome uniquely localize to the centromere and nucleates kinetochore may reside in minor changes in its histone fold domain structures but may also be contributed its divergent N-terminal and C-terminal tails and posttranslational modifications. Centrochromatin displays unique pattern of posttranslational modifications (PTMs) which is neither heterochromatic nor euchromatic in nature. This balance is essential for a regulated transcription from the centromere and localization of the CENP-A nucleosome and maintenance of the

Transcription in eukaryotes is one of the most vital processes of life that involves a highly controlled and regulated systematic series of events that is mediated through various key factors. The process of transcription occurs when the genetic information stored within DNA becomes activated through the synthesis of complementary mRNA and is thus regulated by RNA polymerases. There are three types of RNA polymerases that distinctively transcribe a specified set of genes. RNA polymerase I and III transcribe genes that have terminal products such as ribosomal subunits, tRNA and small nuclear RNA. For example, RNA polymerase I is located in the nucleolus of eukaryotic cells and is responsible for transcribing 18S, 5.8S,

The fourth exon of the MECP2 gene is the largest one; it contains a larger than 8.5 kb 3′-untranslated region, with numerous polyadenylation sites that enable the generation of multiple transcripts varying in size. Alternative polyadenylation in the 3′-untranslated region gives rise in a highly expressed 10.1-kb transcript in the foetal brain and a 5-kb transcript in the adult brain (Coy JF.,

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are a class of RNAs that are more than 200 nucleotides long (2) and do not encode proteins. LncRNAs regulate a spectrum of biological functions and their misregulation or differential expression contribute to tumerogenesis. Exploiting this feature of lncRNAs make them excellent candidates for cancer therapy. An important indication of cancer is metabolic reprogramming which is indicated by increase in various pathways in cells such as glycolysis, glutaminolysis, Pentose Phosphate Pathway, synthesis of nucleotide and fatty acids, and formation of citrate through TCA cycle (4). Prostate Cancer Gene expression marker 1 (PCGEM1) (3), is a lncRNA that control the reprogramming of metabolic pathways in prostate

Since the discovery of the small RNA lin-4 in 1993 (Lee et al., 1993; Wightman et al., 1993), it has become evident that the miRNA machinery regulates many proteins and almost all cellular pathways (Pasquinelli et al., 2005; Stark et al., 2007; Filipowicz et al., 2008; Friedman et al., 2009). miRNAs are 20-23 nucleotide (nt) long RNA sequences encoded by genomic DNA (Bartel, 2004). After transcription, the RNA sequence destined to become a miRNA folds into a hairpin structure called the pri-miRNA. Pri-miRNAs are cleaved by the Drosha-Pasha complex in the nucleus and become ~70-nucleotide pre-miRNAs (He & Hannon, 2004), which are transported to the cytoplasm by Exportin 5. There, it is cleaved a second time by Dicer-TRBP complex to yield a 20 base pair (bp) double stranded sequence. The two strands are then separated, and one is degraded while the other is assembled into the miRNA-induced silencing complex (miRISC) (Filipowicz et al., 2008). Other components of miRISC are Argonaute proteins and other regulatory proteins such as fragile X-mental retardation protein (FMRP) (Jin et al., 2004a; Filipowicz et al., 2008). Mature miRNAs bind to seed regions in the 3 ' UTR of target mRNAs to either suppress their translation or mark them for degradation (Pasquinelli et al., 2005; Behm-Ansmant et al., 2006; Filipowicz et al., 2008).

One of the fundamental discoveries of the 20th century was that DNA was the genetic code’s physical structure (Watson & Crick, 1953) and, since then, many studies have disclosed the complicated pattern of regulation and expression of genes, which involve RNA synthesis and its subsequent translation into proteins.

Heterogeneous ribonucleic proteins (HNRNPs) are a family of RNA binding proteins that play a key role in various metabolic functions of RNA. There are roughly twenty major hnRNPs which are readily found in large quantities in the nucleus and in some cases in the cytoplasm. hnRNPs are expressed throughout all tissues at different levels depending on the hnRNP (Kamma et al. 1994). hnRNP metabolic roles include polyadanilation, shuttling mRNA out of the nuclear envelope, telomere biogenesis and localization. (Dreyfuss et al. 2002). In particular, hnRNP A1 can acts an an antagonist to the SF2/ASF protein, which allows A1 to inhibitor exon splicing and cytoplasm bound transport of mRNA. An example of localization is hnRNP A2, which confers the dendritic mRNA transport of various transcripts when induced by neuronal activity (Muslimov et al. 2002).

We repeated these procedures for 9515 transcriptomic queries (all transcriptomic profiles in database repository) (Figure 1, Step IVb).

The central dogma of biology holds that genetic information generally results from DNA to RNA to protein., this directional view has been changed by the emergence of non-coding RNAs(ncRNA) in gene expression. ncRNA is small RNA that constitute a large family of RNA that do not code for protein formerly seen as a waste, but that does not mean that these RNA does not have a biological function. Most importantly, they are shown to be implicated in the regulation of transcription and post-transcription mechanism in gene expression. Some the regulatory ncRNA include microRNAs(miRNA), circular RNAs(circRNAs), and long non-coding RNAs (IncRNAs). This review summarizes the mechanisms and examples where these ncRNAs regulate transcription and