Factors That Affect The Rate Of The Pregnancy

Pitocin is a hormone used to stimulate uterine contractions and prevent hemorrhage from the placental site. Prior

When a woman gives birth there is a massive change in her hormones, and these changes evoke maternal behavior [2]. For example, oxytocin also known as the “bonding hormone or the love hormone” is a chemical messenger that is released into the brain in response to social contact, it’s especially noticeable with skin-to skin contact such as breast-feeding [2]. Oxytocin not only provides health benefits, but it also promotes bonding, such as between a breast feeding mother and her infant, and creates a desire for more contact with the individual evoking the release [2]. However, it’s not necessary for maternal behavior

For example, this was another study that used animals that had been isolated for a number of days. While the reason for isolating the animals was fully explained, the stress from isolation could still have affected results. Future studies will need to take this into account and investigate the effect of stress on alcohol consumption in different housing conditions for these animals. Another limitation was that, while ethanol preference and intake in comparison with total fluid intake was recorded, these measurements were not reported in the study. While alcohol preference ratios were given to determine which animals would be labeled “high” and “low” drinkers, the actual amount of ethanol the animals consumed in relation to total fluid was not reported. This is a flaw, as it is necessary to understand just how much of each substance the animals are drinking in relation to one another. In the future, total fluid consumption for animals needs to be reported. A final limitation was that it was not mentioned whether siblings were used in the experiment. Following weaning, animals were housed with siblings until they were used in the study. The use of multiple siblings in the experimental groups could have added more animals to the study, as well as added information about the effect of genetics on drinking, as there is a genetic influence on drinking behavior and, due to being from outbred colonies, prairie voles exhibit great genetic variability. Future studies will need to address whether or not siblings are used. Despite the study’s limitations, however, this was the first study to provide evidence that not only could housing condition affect the drinking level of voles, but the intake of one vole could influence the drinking level of a partner. The findings of this study suggest that peer interactions do indeed affect drinking behavior in this species, and that prairie voles can and do alter their drinking level to better match

Researchers decided to use the rodent species of the prairie vole and the meadow vole in their study. This was done because the social traits of the prairie vole, i.e. being socially monogamous and biparental, often coevolve with other cooperative behaviors that increase direct or indirect fitness, including social buffering among colony members (Burkett et al., 2016). The meadow vole, in contrast, are promiscuous breeders with no formal social structure. Thus, Burkett and colleagues offered the following three hypotheses. Firstly, they hypothesized that if both voles are placed under reproducible laboratory conditions, then the prairie vole will show consolation behavior while the

Near term, the pregnant woman starts to have many hormonal changes, which will prepare her to give birth; however, prostaglandin plays the most critical role in this process. When the pregnant woman reach around 39 to 40 weeks of pregnancy, the fetus’ growth is completed as fetus’ organs are matured enough to start working on their own. Giving birth or what it is scientifically known as parturition or labor is a combination of hormonal and physiological changes that affect maternal tissue in order to facilitate the expulsion of the fetus through the birth canal. This labor process is divided into 4 stages, and it is initiated when fetal and placental corticotropin-releasing hormone increases and down-regulate progesterone hormone. Progesterone

In this experimental study, Robinson, Myers, Hofer, Shair, and Welch look at the way in which Prairie Vole pups may show companion preference for their mothers (the dam) over their fathers (the sire) primarily through the increase rate of vocal cues (potentiation) they exhibit after being separated from the dam. Two main experiments were conducted in this study, the main difference being that in one (Experiment 1) the vole parents were drugged and inactive during reunions with the pups, whereas in the second (Experiment 2) the parents were not drugged, and were active during the reunion with the pups. In both of these experiments, the pup was first placed in an isolation test cage, followed by a reunion with either the dam, sire, two litter

Therefore OT could also affect neural basis of pair bonding. This experiment indicates a neuroanatomical difference between monogamous and polygamous species. The behavioral section of the result seems to associate the social behavior and the anatomical representation. The differences in the distribution of Oxytocin binding in prairie and montane voles appears to have an effect in affiliation which might affect pair bonding as well.

In all otariid species, the male ignores young pups. There is no parental care. Often, the males are even overly aggressive towards young pups. After parturition, the mother immediately smells the newborn and vocalizes. The pup can vocalize within minutes of birth. Through these actions, a mother-pup bond is formed. They can then recognize each other and reestablish connections based on smell and vocalizations (textbook). It is thought that hearing is the more efficient so that vocalizations are better at distinguishing between individuals (3). This is beneficial in reuniting pup and mother after she returns from her foraging trip. The female will attack females at risk of endangering their pup. They will move the pup out of harms way if necessary by way of mouth (3). Pups are rejected by non-maternal females (4). Pups often aggregate with other pups in the same age group normally in areas away disturbances. Pups receive no instruction in feeding and swimming from the mother. They learn from their social ties with other pups (3).

Oxytocin promotes bonding and creates a desire for more contact with the individual that is providing the touch (Andersen, 2007, p.121). Oxytocin is the hormone that gives a mother the bonding feeling of warmth and love towards her infant. It promotes the mother's desire to hold the infant close and to breast feed it. .According to Uvnäs-Moberg, et al. (2015), the intensity of the oxytocin pulses that are created when a mother and infant conduct skin-to-skin contact is higher and longer lasting than the pulses created during labor and breastfeeding. They also found that the maternal release of oxytocin is started by an activation of sensory nerves in the skin, ignited by touch, warmth, and stroking in connection with skin-to-skin contact with the infant. Gentle touch stimulates the brain and helps the infant to feel loved and secure which will lead to a strong connection with the mother. A strong bond between infant and mother will help ensure that the infant will be able to build healthy relationships in the future (Andersen, 2007, p.239). The same conclusion was made by Uvnäs-Moberg et al. (2015), when they found that if an infant had increased physical and mental closeness with its mother, shortly after birth, the infant’s level of oxytocin was increased not only as an infant, but throughout life. The infants with increased interactions with others in a secure

Breastfeeding determines, through the stimulus of sucking, the production by the pituitary of high levels of oxytocin. Oxytocin is a hormone that acts:

Promotes maternal attachment behaviors. Oxytocin, the ‘love hormone’, is found increased during SSC which make the mother more relax and attractive to the baby (Cong et al., 2015).

Levels of oxytocin increases throughout the labor and it reaches its peak just before birth. Moving around during labor is one of the most important aspect to help the mother’s uterus to contract and in response to the contraction, the baby descend into the cervix. Induced labor usually requires an intravenous line and continuous electronic fetal monitoring, which makes it really difficult for the laboring mother to move around. Continuous emotional and physical support helps the expectant mothers to forge ahead. The instructor showed the participant’s different positions to assume once the intensity of the labor is high. She encouraged the partners to try the positions with their spouse. The instructor also emphasized that to relived back

Many women who have ever been pregnant know that when the onset of labor hits that the time that they have been waiting for has arrived, and the end is inevitable there will be a baby in an undetermined amount of time. Labor and delivery is the signaling the end of a pregnancy with the delivery of newborn infant(s) from a woman 's uterus. A normal childbirth can be categorized into three levels of labor they are: the dilation of the cervix, birth of the infant, and the delivery of the placenta or afterbirth. There is a trend that has been rising where the mother consumes the placenta after the birth. This is supposed to retain the vitamins and minerals that were present while the woman was pregnant and is a way to continue to give the

Therefore this may cause the labour to be longer (McCandlish 1993). The warmth of the water may also trigger relaxation of muscles. This could lead to a reduction of anxiety that the mother is feeling during her labour. It may also help to stimulate the release of Endorphins (Ginesi 1998). Endorphins are peptide hormones which stimulate opiate receptors, causing an analgesic effect. Another benefit of labouring and birthing in water is that whilst a woman is in the water, there is an increase of elasticity of the perineum, which is said to reduce the risk of severe perineal trauma (Alderdice 1995). It has also been suggested that birthing in water increases the satisfaction of the women and makes them feel more in control (Hall 1998; Richmond 2003).

That is, there is a desensitization or down regulation of oxytocin receptors. This in turn suggests that in long augmented labors, additional oxytocin may not be beneficial. Therefore, early in these cases, one should consider switching to alternative uterotonic agents in the presence of excessive bleeding.