Treatment & Prevention in fishes
Currently, there is no widely accepted treatment for mycobacteriosis because of the limited and varying success reported with conventional antibiotics in certain species of Mycobacterium. The reasons for this is due to resistance of several species to the fish immune system and the structure of the organism whereby it has a dense, waxy-like cell wall that prevents penetration of many common disinfectants. Due to this, agents like chlorine require higher doses and extended contact time. However, species susceptibility differs as M. marinum is more susceptible to chlorine than species such as M.chelonae. There have been records of the use of formalin or phenolic compounds as a disinfectant on farms. There are
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For example, disease levels could be kept low by using a water-cooling system in fish ponds during summer or by soaking nets and other equipment in 200mg/l chlorine for 5 minutes. It is important to know the history of new animals entering the facility and quarantine all sick or newly imported animals. The use of ultraviolet sterilization has been reported to be effective in the prevention of pathogens. Trash fish or dead fish carcasses used as a source of protein in fish feed for should be heated for 30 minutes at 76˚C to eradicate any pathogenic mycobacteria. On the other hand, dead fishes should be burned or buried in quicklime. There are no vaccines for fish mycobacteriosis.
Human health
Several Mycobacterium species are zoonotic with M. marinum being the most commonly recovered from skin lesions in humans. Other species that can infect humans include M. fortuitum, M. intracellulare, M. kansasii and M. chelonae. M. fortuitum was previously cultured from patients with pulmonary disease and local abscesses while M. chelonae as isolated from heterography heart-valve transplants and lesions have been found in synovial fluid and muscle. Transmission to humans occur from contact with contaminated water sources or infected fish through an entry point such as breaks in skin. Severity of human infection depends on the immune status hence, it primarily a concern in immunocompromised individuals. Generally found in aquaria, infections can occur when cleaning or maintenance of
Method of pathogen introduction to a non-pathogenic environment includes brood stock, Aquaculture feeds and equipment. But the main method of disease introduction is due to movement of contaminated animals. Assessing of the antimicrobial use is a difficult task due to more than 200 aquatic species are
Clostridium botulinum has strains ranging from A through E. Humans can get Type E Botulism if the toxin is ingested by eating an infected fish or animal (NYDEC 2015). Infection by botulism does not occur due to swimming in waters where affected fish or wildlife is found. However, cooking may not destroy the toxin, so it is recommended that ingestion of fish or game that show signs of illness be avoided. Symptoms of illness in birds include inability to hold their head up (drowning,) poor posture (dragging wings while standing,) and inability to fly. Affected fish usually die quickly, may swim erratically near the surface of the water, and are often seen washed up on shore.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a pathogen, which its physiology is directly linked to features of tuberculosis that it causes. The crucial feature for a mycobacteria’s survival is its unique cell wall structure. The insoluble cell wall core of MTB is formed by a large variety of lipid-containing molecules, such as mycolic acid, that are covalently attached (6). This hydrophobic cell wall provides a physical protection from the host immune response and serves as a barrier against many toxic insults (2). Further, the complex MTB cell wall is impermeable to both hydrophobic and hydrophilic molecules, resulting in inherent resistance of MTB to most common antibiotics (8). Lipoarabinomannan is an antigen on the outside of the organism. This antigen is another important component of the cell wall because it inhibit the fusion of Mycobacterium-containing phagosomes with lysosomal compartments (4). Lipoarabinomannan hinders the fusion of phagosome with lysosome by impairing Ca2+/calmodulin pathway and inactivates macrophages (8). Therefore, this cell-surface component of MTB is able to facilitate the survival of mycrobacteria within macrophages (8). Also, MTB is able to survive the harsh environment of the host tissues by utilizing any available
In such necrotic granulomas, infected AMs undergoes cell lysis and release slowly-replicating or non-replicating mycobacteria in to caseous center. These necrotic granulomas with caseous center may create a suitable niche for slow growing reservoir mycobacteria (Seiler et al., 2003; Fenhalls et al., 2002; Ryan et al., 2010; Driver et al., 2012; Hoff et al., 2010). Sterilization of such necrotic granulomas containing slow growing or non-replicating mycobacteria is extremely
Throughout history humans have been plagued with mycobacterial diseases, most notably, Tuberculosis and Leprosy, caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium leprae, respectively. [1] However, with the advent of antimicrobial cocktails and public health measures, the incidence of these diseases saw a sharp decline. [1-2] Conversely, with the increase of pulmonary diseases due to smoking, immunosuppressive drug therapies, and the HIV/AID epidemic, the incidence of diseases caused by non-Tuberculosis Mycobacteria (NTM) began to increase. [2] These NTMs are ubiquitous in nature and can be found nearly everywhere (e.g., soil, domestic and wild animals, tap water, surface water, milk, and food.) [3-4] Currently, just
V. vulnificus showed high incidences of antibiotic resistance (Table 3) which can be attributed to excessive usage of antimicrobials in humans and contaminations of coastal and estuarine waters with the agricultural runoff or wastewater treatment plants. Residual water from the industries, where products containing microbial agents are prepared and washed, when released directly into the sewage system may ultimately flow into the sea (Livesley et al. 1997) Antibiotic resistant V. vulnificus introduced into the marine environments readily contaminates the shellfish, which concentrate the marine microflora via filter feeding, subsequently causing a mutation in the cellular DNA (Zulkifli et al. 2009).
Aquatic environments provide an ideal setting for the growth of a variety of microorganisms that are in continuous contact with the mucosal surfaces of the fish body (Gomez et al., 2013). Although all mucosal surfaces of their body are constantly exposed to the
Mycobacteriophage or phages are viruses that in-fect mycobacteria. The importance of this research is to find alternatives in the fields of genetics, ther-apeutics, and epidemiology ("Mycobacterium Smegmatis"). According to the SEA PHAGES Labor-atory Manual, phages are of interest for reasons such as replacing antibiotics, traditional therapies, and for using the phage DNA as a tool for further information. Phages are no susceptible to antibiot-ics, can survive in almost all types of environment, and are the most abundant life-form on earth ("Mycobacterium Smegmatis"). The research we are doing in this course is significant for we are discov-ering and sequencing a new phage in the matter of one semester.
The zoonotic potential of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) has been established owing to similarities in clinical findings and pathological lesions between Johne’s disease (JD) (Paratuberculosis) in animals and Crohn’s disease (CD) in humans. Clinical symptoms of paratuberculosis results in chronic intermittent diarrhea, fever, weight loss and remission and relapse, with unresponsiveness to antibiotics leading to progressive wasting, emaciation and death. Pathological lesions of paratuberculosis in human and animals are characterized by chronic intestinal granulomatous inflammation (Momotani et al., 2012). MAP has widest host range from domestic to wild ruminants including primates and human beings (Singh et al.,
Although bacterial infections are one of the main problems in the aquaculture industry, very few studies regarding the intestinal response to bacterial pathogens after natural infections can be found in the literature. Additionally, the number of studies performed in the laboratory under controlled conditions is low, prompting the need for more in-depth experiments to determine the role of GALT in bacterial infections.
50 species in two concentrations of DNA from each strain, 5ng/µl and 5pg/µl; while strong positive result with M. bovisBCG was detected. Furthermore, β-actin internal control showed positive Ct-values with all Mycobacterial species including M. bovisBCG (table 1). Table 1. Mycobacteria and non-mycobacteria analyzed for the determination of the specificity of real-time MAP-PCR Target sequence IS1801
Bacteriological quality standards are used to prevent diseases and sicknesses that can be contracted through the uses of the river’s water, such as swimming. Escherichia Coli (E. coli), a harmful group of bacteria commonly found in the intestine of animals and humans, is used as an indicator of pathogens. (Figure 3) Another indicator is the Total Coliform quality which is the total number of Coliform bacteria, such as E. coli, which exist in the river. Coliform bacteria is used as an indicator because they usually exist where other pathogens of fecal origins exists. Although disinfection periods try to clean the water, the
Furthermore, by understanding the different roles bacteria play in a natural aquatic environment, we can then apply our understanding of industrial microbial ecosystems such as open ponds and aquacultures to ponds. For instance, Beyer et al. showed that the “diverse metabolic activities of microbes are essential to maintaining a stable, productive ecosystem for biomass production in algae open ponds”. Similarly, microorganisms are essential within aquaculture, “preventing unwanted algal bloom and pathogens and improving water quality.” Conversely, we can also use the methods applied in aquacultures which control for pathogens and water quality via bioremediation and bioaugmentation within a natural aquatic environment. Through this study, we can then predict what further action is to be taken to maintain a healthy ecosystem.
According to the given research case, Australia’s department of Agriculture has found residues of antibiotics after an inspection service in imported shrimp and basa catfish consignment from Vietnam. The Australian government is concerned that local population might increase the risk of infection resistance as the result of ingesting fish produces that contain antibiotics residues. Thus, Australian government wishing to place a ban on all import fish from Vietnam unless the importer can proves that all import fish products are free of antibiotics debris. With anticipation of World
Aquaculture products can harbour pathogenic bacteria which are part of the natural micro-flora of the