Gastrointestinal Tuberculosis

Answer: The combination of Insulin as well as oral hyperglycaemic drugs may be prescribed for Diabetes because they help in lowering the blood glucose levels. However the primary treatment doesn’t consist of these drugs. The primary treatment comprises of Diet control, Physical activity and Weight control. If after following the primary treatment strictly, no improvement in the blood glucose level is achieved then medication is suggested for the same. Insulin helps in maintaining the blood sugar levels. Note that insulin is not to be taken orally because the acids and digestive juices in the stomach destroy it. It has to be injected under the skin only. Taking insulin leads patient to experience Hyperglycaemic condition. The Hyperglycaemic drugs helps our body to react appropriately with the insulin so that the insulin hormone is able to help transfer glucose from blood to the cells successfully.

Diabetes is a very common chronic medial disorder and expected to be a big medical challenge of the twenty first century (Clark, 2004). It is a condition, in which the glucose level in the blood becomes so high that the body is unable to utilize it properly. This long-term condition results when the pancreas of the victim is either not able to produce enough insulin (sometimes even cannot produce any insulin) or the insulin produced cannot work properly. Diabetes is divided into two main types: Type 1 and Type 2. Type 1, also known as insulin dependent diabetes milletus (Masharani, 2008) cannot be prevent while Type 2 can be prevented but if the patient is at pre-diabetes stage.

All patients with type 1 diabetes (T1DM) and many patients with type 2 diabetes (T2DM) require insulin therapy at some point to adequately manage their disease state.5 Traditional treatment of DM therapy, which ultimately includes subcutaneous injection of insulin, is often met with apprehension among diabetic patients due to the inconvenience and discomfort of injecting oneself. Administration of insulin by methods other than injection has been investigated since the discovery of insulin in the 1920s.6One such

Though there are many hypoglycemic agents available for the treatment of diabetes, insulin remains an important therapy for patients with type 2 diabetes. This is because the natural history of type2 diabetes is characterized by progressive loss of beta cell function resulting into type 1 phenotype [28]. Due to this, exogenous insulin therapy is often required to achieve optimal glycemic control, even in type 2 diabetes [29]. If insulin is used appropriately, it is almost always

Administration of this type is only once or twice a day. It provides a basal insulin level due to its extended release during a time of fasting. The release impairs glucose production in the liver to help maintain a leveled blood glucose reading. Examples of long lasting insulin include insulin glargine and insulin detemir. (2) Different modifications of insulin’s structure results in the slower absorption and longer duration of action. Researchers used this to develop long lasting insulin to help maintain baseline levels in the body. Insulin glargine has a substitution of glycine for asparagine and the addition of two arginine molecules compared to human insulin. These changes are enough to alter the pH of the insulin. When the insulin is injected subcutaneously it precipitates out forming a bolus. The precipitate slows absorption but extends the duration. These properties are essential when trying to obtain a basal level within the body over a long period of time. Glarine usually lasts 24 hours, which means it only has to be injected once daily. Insulin detemir contains a fatty acid side chain which increases its binding to proteins such as albumin. The binding prolongs the action of the insulin but it must still be administered twice a day.

Tuberculosis has been part of human history for a long time but how long is a long time? Recent research using genetic data has allowed us to know that the tuberculosis progenitor has been on this planet for about 3 million years affecting even our earlier ancestors (Gutierrez et al, 2005). Additionally this research showed that the bacilli from tuberculosis are capable of mixing sections of their genome with other strains and giving the pathogen a composite assembly, which resulted from ancient horizontal exchanges before its clonal expansion. This quality provided tuberculosis a big advantage that even now a days allows the organism to evade, adapt and create resistance to treatments that were once successful. In order to fix current and

Insulin is an anabolic and anticatabolic hormone made by beta cell in the pancreas. It plays major roles in diabetes mellitus treatment. Insulin treatment is usually offered as subcutaneous injections with syringes, insulin pens or an insulin pump. New technique for the delivery of insulin continue to be discovered, including oral, transdermal, and inhalation delivery.1

Insulin is one of the animal cell product which is widely known for its uses for diabetes treatment. Scientifically, insulin is one type of hormone made in the pancreas. Mostly of the food intake by human beings will be converted into glucose which then travels into the blood and all of the cells in our body, this is where the insulin production is crucial in aiding the glucose’s movement from the blood into the body cells.

When food is ingested in a person body it is broken down into smaller components including a sugar called glucose. Glucose travels to the cells in our body through the bloodstream and this is made possible due to insulin. As stated earlier insulin is produced by the beta cells and is stored in the pancreas. When the glucose levels go up in a person’s body the pancreas release the stored insulin in order for the glucose to get into the cells. To summarize insulin is what allows for glucose to produce energy. The cells in our body

Rapid-acting analogs have different amino acid structure than that of human insulin. This causes decrease in hexameric insulin formation after injection into the subcutaneous space. Furthermore there is rapid dissolution of insulin into monomers, rapid insulin absorption into the bloodstream and a shorter duration of action. In vivo studies have found that, rapid-acting insulin analogs have identical potency compared to regular human insulin and higher peak concentrations are achieved . Compared to regular insulin, the rapid-acting insulin analogs lead to less postprandial hyperglycemia and less late postprandial hypoglycemia. Injection of rapid-acting insulin analogs, 15-20 minutes before meal leads to maximal

On May 2007, there was an international manhunt for Andrew Speaker. His face was plastered all over the news and there was an urgency to capture him. For a brief period he was the most wanted individual in the United States and finding his location at that current time was of the upmost priority (Altman, 2007). The only crime Andre had committed was that fact that he was in cohorts with Tuberculosis. When they finally found him, they put him in quarantine. Why this grave precaution? What had made him the most wanted man in the world and what is the story behind Tuberculosis?

Even though the idea of tuberculosis being hereditarily was present, tuberculosis was still agreed to be an infectious disease at this time. Tuberculosis, as many other bacterial infections, needs a host. The bacterium is not found outside of the animal’s body. The main way that tuberculosis, and many other bacteria-caused diseases spread is through sputum. It is estimated that “a fairly well advanced consumptive spits out from one and a half to four and a third billion bacilli in twenty-four hours” (Kelbs 32). Basically, if the person is infected with tuberculosis, and does not take proper precautions, that person is endangering everyone they come in contact with. It is estimated that “a consumptive infects only a small area about him – 30 to 50 cubic meters” (Kelbs 32). When a person is coughing and, sneezing, or even talking, that person is ejecting dried up and pulverized sputum, which can be easily carried like dust through the currents of air to be inhaled or swallowed. While the most obvious way of spread is through expelling the bacterium into the air, the culture of the early 20th century also fueled the spread. Handkerchiefs were very popular at the time. Through this popular fashion of the time, “sputum is also disseminated through the habit of spitting into handkerchiefs, which soil the pocket into which they are placed” (Kelbs 32). After the handkerchief is placed back into is place, the sputum is then dried and pulverized, ready to be spread. Any hand that has

Tuberculosis is among the fatal diseases that are spread through the air. It’s contagious, meaning that it spreads from one infected individual to another, and at times it spreads very fast. In addition to being contagious, the disease is an opportunist infection as it takes advantage of those with weak defense mechanism, and especially the ones with terminal diseases like HIV and AIDS. Tuberculosis is therefore among the major concerns for the World Health Organization due to its contagious nature (World Health Organization 1).

Table 1 shows the antimicrobial resistance pattern for all antimicrobials agents used, and the MIC for rifampicin. Table 2 shows the relative quantification of the transcript levels for five rpfs in M. tuberculosis isolates, exposed to sub-MIC (MIC=128 mg/L) concentration of RIF.

Diabetes is a systemic disease caused by a decrease in the secretion of insulin or reduced sensitivity or responsiveness to insulin by target tissue. (Beale, et al., 2011) The incidence of diabetes is growing rapidly in the United States and worldwide. An estimated 347 million people around the world are afflicted with diabetes. (Whalen, et al., 2012) According to World Health Organization (WHO), Diabetes prevalence among adults over 18 years of age has risen from 4.7% in 1980 to 8.5% in 2014. It is the major cause of blindness, kidney failure, heart attack, stroke and limbic amputation. World Health Organization (WHO) projects that diabetes will be the 7th leading cause of death in 2030. It is a complex and costly disease that can affect nearly every organ in the body and result in devastating consequences. The leading cause of non-traumatic lower extremity amputations, renal failure, and blindness in working-age adults, diabetes is also a major cause of premature mortality, stroke, cardiovascular disease, peripheral vascular disease, congenital malformations, perinatal mortality, and disability. (Cefalu, 2000) Insulin therapy and oral hypoglycemic agents have demonstrated improvement in glycaemic control. However, Insulin therapy has some disadvantages such as ineffectiveness following oral administration, short shelf life, of the need for constant refrigeration, and fatal hypoglycaemia, in the event of excess dosage.