Gene Sequencing And The Human Genome Project

On the last years, genetic technology have been improving. The research carried out in this area are focused on the early diagnosis of diseases. Moreover, manipulation of genes in the future provides a critical tool for eliminating fatal diseases to humans. Also humans will be able to manipulate genes from birth. But the real question is although can be perform it, we allow it? Everything possible is ethically permissible? Some dramatic demonstrations of genetic modification have been made with mice and other animals, however, evidence in humans are generally considered outside the ethical boundaries. Gregory Stock, director of the Program on Medicine, Technology, and Society at UCLA and author of Redesigning Humans, in his article “Choosing Our Genes” (2012) argues the use of technology to change humans genetic in order to avoid imperfections or diseases. Stock shows genetic engineering as a very useful technology and that applying it on the future to humans, positive results they will gain. Stocks article is effective, since he gives good reasons why using genetic technology would provide several benefits that people wish to have.

In “Patenting Life,” Michael Crichton argues that the government is mishandling the patenting office with the awarding of patents for human genes. Gene patenting is blocking the advancement of modern medicine and could be costing many patients their lives. The hold on research results in the discovery of fewer cures for modern diseases.

Patent Genes have been the center of a attention for a very long time. When we take the time to stop and think about how research and medical cost affect our lifestyles, it is very alarming to know that even the natural occurrences in life can be bought for the right price. In the op-ed piece and article, “Patenting Life” and “Decoding the Use of Gene Patents”, by Michael Crichton and John E. Calfee, both authors draw attention to the uses of patenting genes. Crichton goes on to say how gene patents have interfered with medical testings, research studies, and the miscommunications between doctors and their patients, while Calfee reiterates how patients and researchers are getting the benefits that come from patenting genes. Although both authors

“One-fifth of the genes in your body are privately owned” according to an author Michael Crichton. Can you imagine a corporate company owning your genes in your body? It’s called gene patenting and its real. Michael Crichton and John E. Calfee discuss gene patent. Although the authors agree that medical test are expensive due gene patenting, the authors have different views about nature patenting and medical advancement.

Myriad Genetics is a biotech company that has a patent on the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, which exist in all humans. I have no problem with that. Myriad Genetics has done what they reasonably had to in order to compete with other companies. Companies should be able to hold patents on genes because it will fuel the growth of scientific research.

Gene technology carries with it social and ethical implications—many of which engender personal views and discussion.

What if a company could privately own something that naturally occurred in a body. Not some foreign object put into someone, but something that's part of their DNA. Now what if they had a deadly disease and were not allowed to donate their tissue for research because a company owned that specific disease gene. A Harvard graduate, Michael Crichton, who wrote “Patenting Life” and American Enterprise Institute scholar, John E. Calfee, who wrote “Decoding The Use Of Gene Patents”, argue the pros and cons of gene patenting. Crichton and Calfee disagree on the major key points on gene patenting.

When thinking about patents, many of us wonder how anyone can patent genes that all of us have carried since we were born. U.S patent law allows inventors to claim new and useful machines, processes, and objects as proprietary creations. This privilege, however, has not been extended to naturally occurring phenomena, such as elements in the periodic table. However, a legal precedent now allows human genes to be patented. In order to study genes, scientists have to isolate and manipulate genes in the laboratory. Thus, in the eyes of patent law, genes are treated just as any other man-made chemical ( Regalado 50). On the strength of this logic, the U.S Patent and Trademark Office (PTO) has been issuing patents to genetic discoveries since the 1970s. Human growth-hormone, insulin, erythropoietin-protein drugs with billions of dollars in combined sales are all manufactured using patented DNA sequences.

Gene patenting is giving the sole rights to the inventor of a certain sequence of Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or Ribonucleic acid (RNA), which are the mapping of our human code. It has also become a bioethical concern that many people may agree or disagree with gene patents. The major concerns with such controversial topic are the handling of such gene patents by the The United States Patent and Trademark Office (PTO), how owners of patents can charge whatever they want, and how a gene patent can halt research. Michael Crichton (1942-2008) was an author, critic, and film producer. John E. Calfee (1941-2011) was a resident scholar at the American Enterprise Institute (AEI) for sixteen years as well as a staff economist

In today’s society, what if I told you that you don’t really belong to yourself. Each individual person was actually owned, at least partially, to a random individual that you have never laid your eyes upon. Having this information revealed to you in such a desperate time can be a bit of a shocking revelation. This information that I have just now released to you have been going on for all the better half of thirty two years. Let me take it a step back and give you the specifics of what most people really don’t want you to know. Genes, it’s the common dominator that ties all living species together. Now you are probably wondering, how do our genes have anything to do with this? What if I told you that individuals have discovered a way to place ownership on any living organism that shares a particular gene? This is called gene patenting. In 1980 there was a U.S. Justice Supreme Court of Diamond v. Chakrabarty, “447 U.S. 303, 206 USPQ 193 (1980), held that microorganisms produced by genetic engineering are not excluded from patent protection by 35. U.S.C. 101. IT is clear from the Supreme Court decision and opinion that the question of whether or not an invention embraces living matter is irrelevant to the issue of patentability” (USPTO). Being able to patent a particular gene or a sequence of genes that will provide ownership to that person. Having this type of “power” I believe is wrong and should have never been allowed for society to abuse.

Because of the ethical controversies that surround gene patenting, the technology is not widely seen as beneficial to society. However, gene patents are critical to the biotech industry. “Such claims protect therapeutic proteins, like human insulin; Mabs, like Herceptin®; transgenic plants, like insect-resistant corn; and diagnostic probes for genetic diseases, which are the foundation for personalized medicine” (Karny, G. (2007, April 01). In Defense of Gene Patenting | GEN Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology News - Biotech from Bench to Business. Retrieved April 02, 2017, from http://www.genengnews.com/gen-articles/in-defense-of-gene-patenting/2052). A ban on gene patenting would have a large and negative impact on gene-based medical therapies

The Human Genome Project has been introduced to us more than twenty-five years from now. It was Initiated and sponsored by the National Human Genome Research Institute, the project was introduced aiming at researching more human genes in order to understand, read genes and find cure for diseases. It guided the medical field to new direction but at the same time created new challenges and problems. The primary objective of the project isn’t wrong or questionable but some believe its implications are. Genes are made of a molecule called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) which contains the instructions for making every protein in the body. By studying and understanding the genome system completely, we will be able to shed some light on how to

Scientists also study gene function. This is more complicated than finding gene location due to the fact that genes influence each other through epistasis and polygenic inheritance. Scientist can use genes with known functions to make educated guesses about the function of unknown genes based on similar structures within the gene. Mutations, and the effects they have, also helps scientists to understand gene function. By locating which gene has been mutated and observing the result of that mutation, scientists can determine that gene’s function. The Human Genome Project (HGP) was founded in order to sequence and identify the entire human genome, and to develop databases of genetic and physical maps of different sequences. It later expanded to include other countries and became known as the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium. Their efforts correlated with the research done by a biotechnology company called Celera Genomics, Inc. Based on both of their results, the human genome contains approximately 35,709 different genes (Richards and Hawley, 299, 303). Interestingly enough, the results showed that every

The Human Genome Project(HGP) provided valuable information that changed biology and medicine. Beginning in the 1990’s a research project was created with the intent of determining the sequence of nucleotide base pairs that made up human DNA. The Collaboration was key to completing this project, it was an international project that required, funding, certain technologies, and research methods. The Human Genome project provided important information that benefited medical science. This project helped scientist understand different genetic diseases that plagued mankind and opened the doors to many other scientific findings. Although the Human Genome Project was met with initial resistance it has proved to be significant in many aspects of science.

In the late 1900’s is when genetic engineering became a more popular scientific breakdown. Towards the last few years a new genetic engineering company was formed called Genetech and it experimented with fusing DNA segments with other animals. In “Millions protest against genetically modified food” A protest was held on May 2013 where 2 million people protested genetically modified food. “ The problem is not the drift to mechanism, but the drive to mastery”- Sanders reported. Many people miss the appreciation of life itself either it's a person or an animal. However, A court session in June 2013 was held that human genes could not be patented. Both legal and medical experts believe the decision will have a lasting impact on genetic engineering. Till today there or no functional genes that we know of that can be transferred safely. The transfer can either cause serious health hazards and can cause disease to spread. One might argue that genetic engineering is helpful to our society and future endeavors and another will argue that it's harmful to life itself.